double arrow

LEXICO-SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES

(1) Climax (Gradation) is an arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance, the most important coming last. Ex. Fatty was soft, Fatty was superstitious, Fatty was an imbecile (Arrowsmith). Gradation here consists of 3 steps, 3 units, each successive unit being more expressive than the preceding one.

We distinguish three kinds of gradation: logical, quantitative, emotive.

Logical gradation is based on the relative importance of the component parts viewed from the point of view of the concepts they denote, i.e. an increase in the importance of the concepts is expressed by the words: "It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a real veritable gem (драгоценный камень) of a city" The semantic value of each successive word is greater than that of a preceding one.

Quantitative gradation is an increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts: "How many sympathetic souls can you reckon on in this world? One in ten - one in a hundred - one in a thousand - in ten thousands?

Emotive gradation is based on the relative emotional tension produced by component parts, i.e. emotive gradation is an increase in the emotive meaning. The syntactic structure of this type of gradation is a little different. Each step contains one and the same word, usually an adjective or an adverb. It is the semantic center of the stylistic device.

Ex. I am sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry.

Thus, gradation is based on the interplay of the lexical meaning of the components and at the same time it is a fixed syntactical structure: it has 3 or more steps, presenting a row of relative synonyms placed according to the degree of their importance. The steps are generally parallel constructions.

(2) Anticlimax

Anticlimax is a stylistic device which has something in common with climax, and at the same time opposite to it in its meaning and effect. It is also a row of relative synonyms arranged according to the degree of importance. At the beginning of the row (au) there is an increase in the meaning but the last unit which is expected to be culmination is trifling (несерьезный). There is a sudden drop from the serious and lofty to the ridiculous.

(3) Antithesis

In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon it is often convenient to compare it with another thing or phenomenon and find some points of resemblance between them. Many stylistic devices are based on this - simile, metaphor, metonymy, personification. But sometimes it is more important to find points of contrast (not resemblance), i.e. to set one object against another. The deliberate contrasting of 2 opposite ideas or features is a stylistic device called antithesis. Antithesis is a structure consisting of 2 steps, the lexical meanings of which are opposed to each other. These steps are generally parallel constructions. The opposition is more clearly perceived when they stand out in similar structures.

Antithesis always contains 2 opposite words characterizing one and the same object. The opposition is expressed by:

1) Antonyms proper. Ex. Youth is hot and bold, age is weak and cold.

2) Contextual antonyms: Ex. His fees were high; his lessons were light

3) Sometimes morphemes are antonymous: underpaid and overworked.

(4) Litotes

Litotes is a stylistic device based on a peculiar use of negative constructions with the purpose of diminishing some quality of an object. It is a deliberate understatement used to produce a stylistic effect: Ex. It is not unreasonable. We have two negations here. According to the general logical and mathematical principles two negatives make a positive.

But it is not quite true about these examples: not unlike is not equal to "like", not unreasonable is not equal to "reasonable" for two reasons:

1) The negative construction diminishes the meaning of the words "like' and "reasonable", "not unlike" is less than "like", not unreasonable is less than "reasonable";

2) We feel a deliberate understatement on the part of the author. He doesn't want to say like" or "reasonable" for some reason.

Litotes presupposes double negation. The first negation is the particle "no(t)". The other may be expressed differently:

1) through a word with a negative suffix or prefix - not unreasonable, not hopeless;

2) through a negative construction containing "not without". Ex. He was not without taste;

3) through a word with a negative or derogatory meaning: He is not a coward. It is not a bad thing.

4) Through an adjective or adverb preceded by "too". I am not too sure. I am not quite too late.

The stylistic function of all these types is identical: to convey the author's doubts concerning the exact characteristics of the object in question.

(5) Simile

Simile is an expression of the likeness existing between different objects. Sometimes the image suggested by simile is not clear. In such case the author gives an explanation: "Her life was like the past of an old city, full, deep, remote". The last epithets are a kind of a key to the simile used in the same sentence.

The simile as a stylistic device must be based on the comparison of objects belonging to different classes. It must also involve an element of imagination. The formal language sign of this likeness is generally in the use of the following conjunctions and adverbs: like, as, such as, etc.

Simile must not be confused with metaphor which suggests identity of the objects compared: "My verse flow like streams".

In the first sentence the words "verses' and "streams" are used in their primary meanings, each of the 2 words is independent of the other. In the other example the word "verses" is used in its transferred figurative meaning, whereas "streams" is used in its transferred, figurative meaning. The linguistic nature of these two stylistic devices is different. Metaphor is the use of a word in its figurative, not direct meaning. It is a device based on the interaction between the logical and contextual meanings of a word. Simile is the use of a word in its direct meaning. For this reason they belong to different groups of lexical expressive means though they serve practically the same stylistic purpose. They both interpret the object by comparing it with some other objects of an entirely different nature, and thus the desired emotional effect is achieved.

Besides the original similes created by writers there is a great number of so-called traditional similes in the language, which are regarded as phraseological units. The image suggested by such similes is usually trite. In these traditional similes the names of animals, plants, natural phenomena, etc. are frequently used. They are used by writers in the direct speech of characters, thus individualizing their speeches. Ex. Fresh as a daisy. Sharp as a needle. Hard as nails.

(6) Periphrasis

Periphrasis is always a word-combination and is used instead of generally accepted word. It usually has the form of a free word combination or a sentence.

Every periphrasis indicates a feature of a phenomenon which occurred to the writer. For this reason periphrasis is used to convey a purely individual perception of a given phenomenon. As a result of frequent repetition periphrasis may become established in the language as a synonymous expression of a noun. Such popular word combinations are called periphrastic synonyms: cap and gown - a student the gentler sex - women a gentleman of the long robe - a lawyer my better half - my wife, etc.

All these examples are based on the figurative use of words. Thus, "cap and gown" is metonymy because husband and wife are considered an integral whole and consequently each of them may be called "a half'.


Понравилась статья? Добавь ее в закладку (CTRL+D) и не забудь поделиться с друзьями:  



Сейчас читают про: