Grammatical meaning, form, category

E) degree of independence

D) structure

C) interaction with other morphemes

Types of morphemes

The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit of language. Morphemes can have different meaning and this is the first principle of their division.

a) Type of meaning:

-lexical (roots) work-long

- lexical-grammatical (prefixes and derivational suffixes) –er

- grammatical inner and outer flections (grammatical suffixes) –s; -er

b) presence\ absence of meaning

- full (any type of meaning)

- empty(only structural function, no meaning) child\r\en\; re\join\d\er; sale\s\man

- additive – book+s

-Substitutional (replacive) man= m…n

- continuous book+s

-Discontinuous a) man= m…n b) has visit ed

- free (only roots – if their form correspond to the word) visit

- bound (all morphemes )- ed, m…n

f) way of representation

- segmental (=linear) (expressed y segmental phonetic means- phonemes)

- supersegmental (expressed by supersegmental means to the linear structure of the word a) stress, b)structure c) order of elements) a) `import- im`port b) annoys- a noise c) income(n)- come in (v)

Linguistics is based on two types of meaning- lexical and grammatical.

Lexical is individual for this word. It specifies the word.

Grammatical meaning on the contrary is more general. It units this word with more other words irrespective of their lexical meaning.- a box,a lecture,a pen -all these nouns are substativity. Grammatical meaning is always expressed in this or that way.

(visit- visit ed - marked form;inflection

read-r ea d- replacive morphemes-infix

write- is writ ing - PR. Cont; gramma.morphem.)

In English as well as in Russian both analytical and syntactical forms are used.

Syntactical forms always consist of one component and both types of meaning are expressed in it. Syntactic forms are classified into 3 types:inflectional, suppletive, alternating.

6) The inflection is a grammatical morpheme added to the stam to change its form. Inflections are most typical of syntactical languages like Russian and German. In English them are also used but the number of inflections is very limited here and as a consequence there are many homonyms among them.

-s (number) ‘s (case) –s (person)

-ed (past),-ed (participle2)

-en(number) –en (perfect)

7) suppletivism is not so popular as inflections and it is used in some historically predetermined words. Neologisms never use this way of form changing.

Go-went; i-me; to be: am, is are\ was, were\ been

The origin of suppletivism is connected with old english synonism that fused in one word,

Suppletive forms should correspond to two criteria:1)they should have absolutely identical lex.meaning.2)they should not be any other way to express this grammatical meaning in the system of language.

8) Sound alternation is very popular in Germanic languages- it is used mostly in nouns and

There are 3 types of it:vowel (tooth- teeth); conson (build-built); mixed types (bring- brought).

Analytical forms have 2 or more elements but they all make one word .(is reading,has been done,will have been done.)

Only one lexical meaning is present here and it is expressed in the final component. Such forms use grammatical elements that are called- auxiliary verbs. Such mechanism is typical of analytical languages. In English passive,continuous,perfect,future,suppositional and conditional moods are formed only analytically.

Syntactical languages use such forms very seldom. In Russian only future (буду читать) degreeof compression (более умный,самый умный) passive forms are expressed analitically.

Grammatical category are divided according to 4 principles.

a) The first is related to extra linguistic phenomena(reality).If we find such link so the category can be logically explained and in this case it is called formal-logical(any real action can be part, present or future). The category of tense is a logical category or number of nouns is a logically category or (clever-cleverer-cleverest). If some grammatical category is used not logically but for the sake of words.(case category)-formal proper(=reflective)

b)fixed-constant(=classifying)

A fixed category demands that the word in all its forms always preserves this category(e.g. -gender of motor in russian declination (склонение), conjugation (спряжение),)

Changeable category are those that are reveled only in some forms (case and number)

c) overt-covert (cryptotypes)

Overt categories are always expressed formally in this or that way.

Covert category also have some definite grammatical meaning but it is expressed not morphologically. (in English there is a special class of functional words to denote the meaning of definiteness)indefiniteness this means that in English nouns have this category as an overt one. In languages where articles are not used the same meaning definite (indefinite)can be expressed lexically (different pronouns тот самый,этот)syntactically (самолет прилетел. Прилетел самолёт)but not morphologically. The category definite (indefinite) is covered (transitivity of verbs)

c)1.Morphological (referring to part of speech: number,tense,degree of comparison,etc)

2.Syntactic(transitivity(intransitivity)coordinativity(subordinativity)predicativity(modality)