Ought to

1 STRONG SUGGESTION

· You ought to go to the dentist if you tooth hurt / gives you trouble.

2 CRITICISM

· You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

· You oughtn’t to play computer games every night.

3 EXPECTATION

· You ought to be grateful to your husband for you providing money for the household.

4 LIKELIHOOD (LESS COMMON)

· She ought to come any minute now.

DARE (semi-modal)

1 PROHIBITION, THREAT, CRITICISM (modal)

· How dare you!

· Don’t you dare touch me / to touch.

2 BE BRAVE ENOUGH TO DO SOMETHING

· I daren’t smoke in my parents’ presence. (less often used)

· I didn’t dare (to) ask her what had happened to her.

3 CHALLENGE SOMEBODY TO DO SOMETHING

· He dared her to jump over the fence / jump into the water.

USED TO (semi-modal)

PAST HABITS

· I used to smoke.

· I used to drink.

· I used to swear.

PAST STATES

· This town used to be very quiet, but now is bustling with activity.

II Modality: Functions of modality

A Primary functions

· Giving advice (should, ought to, had better, you’d rather)

· Granting permission (You’re allowed to, you can do, you may)

· Expressing prohibition (mustn’t, you are not to do sth, you shalt no steal, something is banned, something prohibited, there is a ban on sth)

· Expressing necessity (duties, obligations) (must / need/ have to / be obliged to do it / be forced to do it / be compelled to do it / be under (no) obligation)

· Expressing ability (can, be able to, have the ability to / be capable of, manage)

· Expressing opportunity, freedom to do sth (can, have the possibility of doing something, have the opportunity to do sth)

B Secondary functions

· Making suppositions both about the present, the future and the past

· Making deductions

· He must be very clever. (present deduction)

· He must have been very clever when he was young but now he’s not so brilliant. (past deduction)

III Use of infinitives after modal verbs:

Present infinitives:

· He may be abroad. (simple)

· He may be staying abroad. (progressive)

· He may be employed in a travel agency. (passive)

Perfect (past) infinitives:

He may have been abroad when you phoned him. (simple)

III A selection of “easier” transformations

1 Perhaps she’s abroad.

She may be abroad.

2 Perhaps she wasn’t taking a bath.

She may not have been taking a bath.

3 Perhaps she’s been studying.

She may/might have been studying.

4 I think she has lost her senses / bearings.

She must/could have lost her senses.

5 I suppose he has left for Australia.

He must/could/may have left for A.

6 It’s certain that he’ll fail.

He is bound / certain to fail.

7 It is certain that she (has) attended the ceremony.