2014-02-01
1009
Gender Issues
Some of the most important linguistic changes affecting English since the 1960s have arisen from the way society has come to look differently at the practices and consequences of sexism (discrimination against one sex). There is now widespread awareness of the way in which language displays (directly or indirectly) social attitudes towards men and women. The criticisms have been mainly directed at the basis built into English vocabulary and grammar which reflect a traditionally male-oriented view of the world that reinforces the low status of women in society. Thus, gender issues have become part and parcel of the problem of political correctness.
In vocabulary, attention has been focused on the replacement of “male” words with a genetic meaning by neutral items.
Ex: chairman – chairperson, salesman – sales assistant.
In certain cases, such as job descriptions, the use of sexually neutral language has become a legal requirement.
The vocabulary of marital status has also been affected – notably in the introduction of Ms as a neutral alternative to Miss or Mrs.
Тема 1 General characteristics ([ˌkærɪktəˈrɪstɪk]) of lexicology
Билет1 Lexicology ([ˌleksɪˈkɔlədʒɪ]) as a branch([brɑ:ntʃ]) of linguistic ([lɪŋˈɡwɪstɪk]):
The term ([tə:m]) lexicology is of Greek origin ([ˈɔrɪdʒɪn]), from “lexis”, which means word and “logos”, which means sign ([saɪn]). Lexicology is the part of linguistic, which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features ([ˈfi:tʃə] особенность) of word and word groups. The term vocabulary denotes the system of words and word groups that the language has.
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Modern English:
Lexicology gives a systematic ([ˌsɪstɪˈmætɪk]) description of the vocabulary of modern English. Meaning is the central ([ˈsentrəl]) problem of lexicology and meaning is the central problem of philosophy ([fɪˈlɔsəfɪ]) as well. That means that lexicology helps to study philosophical ([ˌfɪləˈsɔfɪkəl]) problems.
The practical ([ˈpræktɪkəl] практическая) value ([ˈvælju:] ценность) of lexicology:
It helps to get information about laws, which govern ([ˈɡʌvən] управлять) the formation and usage ([ˈju:zɪdʒ] использование) of English word and word groups.
Several types of lexicology:
1) General lexicology studies vocabulary irrespective ([ˌɪrɪsˈpektɪv] независимо) of the specific([spɪˈsɪfɪk] характерных) features of any particular ([pəˈtɪkjulə] определенного) language.
2) Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language.
a) Historical lexicology studies the development of the vocabulary the origin of words and word groups, their semantic ([sɪˈmæntɪk] симантика) and the development of their form and meaning.
b) Descriptive ([dɪsˈkrɪptɪv] наглядная) lexicology studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development.
The connection lexicology with other branches of linguistics:
1) Phonetics([fəuˈnetɪks] фонетика) studies the phonetic structure ([ˈstrʌktʃə]) of language and the sound form of the word. If we change some sounds in the word we get the word with the different meaning. For example: ship – sheep (корабль – овца).
2) Grammar ([ˈɡræmə]). The grammatical ([ɡrəˈmætɪkəl]) form is changed and the meaning is change too.
For example: color (цвет) – colors (флаг);
arm (рука) – arms (оружие).
The part of speech can be changed too.
For example: name – to name;
pocket – to pocket;
e-mail – to e-mail.
3)Stylistics studies nature([ˈneɪtʃə] сущность) or function and styles languages.
4) Lexicology is connected with history of the language. Historical lexicology studies the development of the vocabulary the origin of words and word groups their semantic and development of their sound form. In old English the word “stool” meant any kind of sit. Later the French word “chare” came and the word “stool” changed its meaning. Now “stool” means seats without back.
English during his development borrowed words from:
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1) Gallic([ˈɡælɪk]) V-VI centuries a.d.
2) Latin ([ˈlætɪn]) a) I century b.c.
b) VII century a.c.
c) XIV –XVI a.d.
3) Scandinavian ([ˌskændɪˈneɪvjən])IX – XI a.d.
4) French ([frentʃ])a) Norman ([ˈnɔ:mən]) XI – XIII a.d.
b) Parisian ([pəˈrɪzjən]) XIV – XVI
5) Greek ([ɡri:k]) XIV- XVI
6) Italian ([ɪˈtæljən]) XIV – XVI
7) Spanish ([ˈspænɪʃ])XIV – XVI
8) Russia, German, Indian and other.
International words are words, which were borrowed from one source by several languages.
· Скандинавские слова s ck
· Французские ударение на последний слог, звук ж, носовые звуки
· Итальянские слова связаны с искусством и музыкой
· Испанские слова связаны с путешествиями в другие страны
· Немецкие существительные пишутся с большой буквы
· Латинский и греческий p ph
Билет2 The word as the basic unit of the language
The word is the basic ([ˈbeɪsɪk]) lexical unit. Many scholars ([ˈskɔlə] ученые) tried to define([dɪˈfaɪn]) a word as a linguistic phenomenon([fɪˈnɔmɪnən] явление). It is the most difficult task(задача) of lexicology. We can only describe word.
1) The word is a speech unit, which serves ([sə:v]) the purposes ([ˈpə:pəs]результатом) at human communication. The word has a second form, it consists of phonemes ([ˈfəuni:m] фонем).
2) The word consists of one or more morphemes ([ˈmɔ:fi:m] морфем). When an affix is added a new word is farmed.
3) In sentences words are syntactically organized. Each word has its position in the sentences. Words have different syntactical function.
4) The word has meaning.
5) The word can be used as a sentence.
6) The word has its paradigm ([ˈpærədaɪm] парадигма). It`s the system of grammatical forms of the word. In speech the word functions in one of its form.
For example:
a) парадигма прилагательного это степени сравнения
nice – nicer - the nicest;
b) у глаголов V1, V2, V3, Ving
go-went-gone-going
The word has its structure:
1) The external ([eksˈtə:nl] внешняя) structure means morphological structure
2) The internal ([ɪnˈtə:nl] внутренняя) structure is its semantic ([sɪˈmæntɪk]) structure or meaning
3) The word has formal ([ˈfɔ:məl] формальное) unity ([ˈju:nɪtɪ] единство). We can`t changed the position of morphemes or insert ([ɪn'sɜːt] вставить) anything between the elements of the word.
4) The word has semantic unity. It denotes one concept ([ˈkɔnsept] понятие)
For example: a black bird (черная птица)
It`s a word group, because each word denotes a separate concept.
a blackbird (дрозд)
It`s a word because it denotes one concept (the type of a bird)
Thus ([ðʌs] таким образом) the word is a speech unit used for the purposes ([ˈpə:pəs] результат) of human communication. It represents a group of sounds has meaning and the system of grammatical forms and it`s characterized by formal and semantic unit.
Тема 2 The etymology ([ˌetɪˈmɔlədʒɪ] этимология) of the English vocabulary
According to original ([əˈrɪdʒənl]) English words may be divided into two groups: native ([ˈneɪtɪv] местные) words and borrowed([ˈbɔrəu] заимствованные) words.
Билет3 Words of native origin
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English vocabulary and which is known from earliest manuscripts ([ˈmænjuskrɪpt] рукописей) of the old English period ([ˈpɪərɪəd]).
Native words are divided into 3 groups:
1) Words of Indo-European origin. These words have cognates ([ˈkɔɡneɪt] родственник) in the vocabulary of different Indo-European languages and form the oldest layer (['leɪə] уровне) they express the most important concepts.
For example: father, mother, daughter, moon, star, sun, soon and other
2) Words of Common ([ˈkɔmən] обще) Germanic ([dʒə:ˈmænɪk]) origin. They are words having parallels ([ˈpærəlel] соответствие) in German, Norwegian ([nɔ:ˈwi:dʒən]) and Dutch (dʌtʃ] голландский).
For example: head, arm, summer, winter, house, shop.
3) English words proper ([ˈprɔpə] присущие). They don`t have cognates in other languages. These words are few.
For example: bird, girl, lady and boy.
Native words are characterized by:
1) High lexical and grammatical, combinability (сочетаемость) and high frequency ([ˈfri:kwənsɪ] частотность)
2) A developed polysemy ([ˈpɔlɪsi:mɪ] многозначность)
3) A great word building power
4) The ability ([əˈbɪlɪtɪ] способность) to form phraseological ([ˌfreɪzɪəˈlɔdʒɪkəl] фразеологические) units
Билет4 Borrowed words, types of borrowed words, etymological([ˌetɪmə'lɔʤɪk(ə)l]этимологические) doublets ([ˈdʌblɪt] копии)
A borrowed word or a borrowing is a word taken over from another language and changed in phonetic ([fəuˈnetɪk]) shape, spelling, paradigm ([ˈpærədaɪm]) or meaning according to the standards ([ˈstændəd] нормы) of the English language.
Paradigm is the system of dramatic ([drəˈmætɪk] существенных) form of word.
Borrowings enter the English in two ways: through ([θru:] через) oral speech and through written speech.
Borrowings may be direct ([dɪˈrekt] прямое) and indirect ([ˌɪndɪˈrekt] косвенное) that is through another language.
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The term “ source of borrowing” means the language from which the word was taken into English.
The term “ origin of borrowing” means the language to which the word may be traced ([treɪs] прослежено).
English during its historical development borrowed words from: Gallic, Latin, Scandinavian, French, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Russia, German, Indian and Austrian.
Types of borrowings:
1) Borrowing proper [ˈprɔpə]
2) Translation borrowing or calques (kælk)кальки. They are words and excrescences ([ɪksˈkresns] разрастание) formed from the material ([məˈtɪərɪəl]) and already existing in the English language, but according to the patterns ([ˈpætən] образец) taken from another language by way of word for word or morpheme for morpheme (пословной или поморфемной) translation.
For example: рус – стенная газета
eng – wall newspaper
3) Semantic borrowing it`s the development in an English word of new meaning under the influence of a word in another language.
For example: English word “pioneer”([ˌpaɪəˈnɪə]) meant “explorer” the one who is the first. Under the influence of the Russian word “пионер” it has come to mean “A member of young pioneer`s organization.
4) Phonetic or direct borrowing
For example: “колхоз” – “kolkhoz” collective farming
5) International words. They are words of identical ([aɪˈdentɪkəl] идентичного) origin that exist in several languages as a result of simultaneous ([ˌsɪməlˈteɪnjəs] одновременное) borrowing from one source.
For example: sputnik, music
