2015-06-30
8876
| Entry | Definition | Equivalent terms |
| absolute generalization | the highest degree of generalization working on the level of notions | absolute abstraction |
| Cf: relative generalization | ||
| Actant | semantic entities representing participants in a situation defined by their abstract semantic function - the function of Agent, Patient, Experiencer, Beneficient, Instrument, etc. (L. Tesniere, A. Greimas) | semantic role |
| to actualize | to realize, to embody; to make a language element part of evolving speech | |
| adjunct | 1. a qualifying word, phase, etc., depend | a dependent unit |
| ing on a particular member of a sentence; | ||
| 2. a secondary word in a junction | ||
| (O. Jespersen) | ||
| Cf.: subjunct | ||
| adnex | a secondary word in a nexus (0. Jespersen) | |
| Agent (as a semantic role) | the person or other being that instigates the happening denoted by the verb, e.g.: Jenny has written me a letter. | |
| allomorph | a concrete manifestation of a morpheme, a variant, an alternative of a morpheme | |
| allo-term | a variant language unit actualized in a concrete speech string | |
| Cf: erne-term | ||
| aspective grammatical meanings | differential grammatical meanings describing the inner character of the verbal process in terms of its beginning, duration, iteration, termination, intermination, or its instantaneous, supercompleted, undercom-pleted character, etc. | categorial |
| aspective | ||
| meanings | ||
| aspective semantics | semantics describing the inner characteristics of the verbal process; it can be expressed lexically or grammatically | |
| Beneficent(as a semantic role) | a person or other being for whose sake an action is performed | |
| binding | syntactical relationship of clauses of different ranks (of an independent and a dependent clause) Cf: linking | |
| bound morpheme | a morpheme that cannot form a word by | |
| itself | ||
| Cf: a free morpheme | ||
| case | a nounal category showing the relation of the referent to some other referent | |
| cleft sentence | a construction in which a simple sentence is divided into two clauses so as to give prominence to a particular language unit and the information it carries, e.g.: // was the players who/that objected to the delay. | |
| collocation | a habitual association between particular words, such as "to" with "fro", the uses of "to" after "answer" and before "me" in "You'll answer to me!" | |
| comment | something said about (predicated of) the | focus |
| topic | ||
| Cf: topic | ||
| common gender nouns | nouns able to actualize either masculine or feminine gender properties of the referent depending on the context | |
| complement | an obligatory dependent language unit Cf: supplement | |
| complementary distribution | relation of formally different morphs having the same function in different environments, e.g.: cows - oxen Cf: contrastive distribution, non-contras-tive distribution | |
| complementive verb | a verb taking an obligatory adjunct, a verb having an obligatory valency | |
| Cf: uncomplementive verbs | ||
| componential analysis | an approach which makes use of semantic components. It seeks to deal with sense relations by means of a single set of constructs. Lexical items are analyzed in terms of semantic features or sense components, treated as binary opposites distinguished by | compositional analysis |
| conceptual domain | information centred around some concept | |
| concord | the relationship between units in such matters as number, person, and gender. The two related units should both be singular or both plural, feminine or masculine, etc. | agreement |
| Cf: government | ||
| consecutive phrase | a phrase based on logical domination of one member over another | |
| Cf: cumulative phrase | ||
| contextualization | establishing the context in which language units are typically used, i.e. finding out who, when, where, why and what for one can be expected to use this or that language unit with a certain meaning (J.R. Firth) | |
| continuous morpheme | an uninterrupted string of phonemes building up a morpheme | uninterrupted morpheme |
| Cf: discontinuous morpheme | ||
| continuum | a set of language units interpolated between any two polar units made up by units having intermediary features; a space of transition between poles | |
| contrastive distribution | relations of different morphs in the identical environment | |
| Cf: non-contrastive distribution, complementary distribution | ||
| coordinative phrase | a phrase based on coordination and consisting of elements of equal rank | |
| Cf: cumulative phrase | ||
| corteme | a unit of language having no semantic content, e.g. phoneme (M. Blokh) | |
| Cf: signeme | ||
| Counteragent | entity (or force) against which the Agent acts | |
| covert morpheme | an implicit morpheme, i.e. a morpheme having no explicit representation in the actual expression | zero morpheme |
| Cf: overt morpheme | ||
| cumulative phrase | a phrase whose elements are not equal in their rank | |
| Cf: coordinative phrase, consecutive phrase | ||
| deep structure | the formal syntactical construction represented by dummy symbols replaced by lexical entities in ways determined by their feature content | |
| Cf: surface structure | ||
| derivational | referring to the formation of language units | |
| derivational suffix | a suffix which may be followed by other suffixes (W.N. Francis) | |
| Cf: inflectional suffix | ||
| "descriptive" plural | the plural form of the noun having a pronounced stylistic colouring due to the usage of the uncountable noun in the function of the countable noun, e.g.: sands, snows | |
| diachronic | dealing with study of language changes over a period of time | historical |
| Cf: synchronic | ||
| dichotomy | division into two parts or categories | |
| dicteme | an elementary topical unit fulfilling the functions of nomination, predication, topicalization, stylization (M. Blokh) | ~ supra-sentential construction |
| differential feature | distinctive feature of a categorial form | distinguishing feature |
| discontinuous morpheme | a morpheme built up of an interrupted string of phonemes, e.g.: be... -en | |
| Cf: continuous morpheme | ||
| distribution | the contextual environment of a language unit | |
| Cf: contrastive, non-contrastive, complementary distribution | ||
| dominational phrase | a phrase based on the relationship of the modifier and the modified | subordinative phrase |
| Cf: equipotent phrase | ||
| elementary unit | a unit indivisible into minor constituents | minimal element, smallest unit |
| eme-term | a generalized invariant language unit Cf: allo-term | |
| epistemic modality | modality expressing the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition expressed in the utterance. It ranges from uncertainty through possibility to probability | |
| equipollent opposition | an opposition whose members have different positive categorial features | |
| Cf: privative opposition, gradual opposition | ||
| equipotent phrase | a phrase based on logical succession of elements having an equal rank | |
| Cf: dominational phrase | ||
| etymon | the earliest traceable form from which a later word is derived | |
| Experiencer | the person enduring a certain state, e.g.: He wants to eat. | |
| extensional semantics | an approach which is concerned with establishing the character of the correspondence between a sign-function and a given state of the world Cf: intensional semantics | |
| finite verb | a verb explicitly expressing predication on the basis of the categories of tense and mood, verb of complete predication | predicate verb |
| Cf: non-finite form of the verb | ||
| formative phrase | a phrase consisting both of notional and functional verbs | |
| Cf.: notional phrase, functional phrase | ||
| function | special purpose of a unit, its ability to serve a certain aim; sometimes equivalent to some abstract syntactic meaning | |
| functional part of speech | a part of speech having a partial nominative value | form word |
| Cf.: notional part of speech | ||
| Generative Grammar | a grammar which precisely specifies the membership of the sets of all the grammatical sentences in the language in question and therefore excludes all the ungrammati-cal sentences. It takes the form of a set of rules that specify the structure, interpret | |
| genitive case | a term in grammar marking possession and analogous relations in the case system of Latin and other inflected languages | possessive case |
| Goal | entity towards which an action is directed, e.g.: He gives a book to Jean. | Addressee, Dative |
| government | a kind of concord in which one term controls or selects the form of the partner | |
| Cf: concord | ||
| gradual opposition | an opposition whose members are characterized by the expression of a certain degree of one and the same categorial feature | |
| Cf: privative opposition, equipollent opposition | ||
| half-gerund | a form having mixed, participial and gerundial, features | participial gerund |
| heterogeneous | differing in kind; having dissimilar or incongruous elements | dissimilar |
| Cf: homogeneous | ||
| hierarchy | organization of elements based on ranking | |
| homogeneous | of the same kind or nature; essentially alike; uniform in structure; composed of parts all of the same kind | similar |
| Cf: heterogeneous | ||
| icon | a highly motivated sign, visually (or acoustically) resembling what it represents (a photograph, hologram, onomatopoeia) (Ch.S. Peirce) | |
| Cf: symbol, index, sign | ||
| identification | the act of singling out a referent Cf: classification | individualization |
| idiom | an expression unique to a language, esp. one whose sense is not predictable from the meaning and arrangement of its elements, e.g.: "kick the bucket" (= to die) | |
| Cf: free word combination | ||
| illocutionary act | an utterance which has a certain conventional force, e.g.: informing, ordering, warning, undertaking, etc. | |
| Cf: locutionary act, perlocutionary act | ||
| immanent category | a category expressing the inherent features of a part of speech (M. Blokh) Cf: reflective category | inherent category |
| immediate constituents | constituent elements immediately entering into any meaningful combination | |
| implication implicit, implied (deriv.) | information which is not given explicit verbal expression to, but which is entailed by some other elements of the context | |
| Cf: explication, verbalization | ||
| inchoative meaning | a kind of aspective meaning consisting in the indication of an action which is shown as just starting, e.g.: Let's get going. | Ingressive |
| index | a partially motivated sign (to the extent that there is a connection, usually of causality, between sign and referent, e.g.: smoke is indexical of fire) (Ch.S. Peirce) Cf.: symbol, icon, sign | |
| indicative verbal forms | verbal forms expressing the categorial meanings of the indicative mood and describing the denoted action in terms of absolutive time | mood forms of reality |
| Cf: subjunctive forms, oblique verb forms | ||
| infix | an affix inserted into the root (sta-«-d: stood) | |
| Cf: prefix, suffix, root | ||
| inflectional suffix | a suffix which must always come at the end of the morpheme groups to which they belong | grammatical |
| Cf: derivational suffix | suffix | |
| instrument (as a semantic role) | the physical stimulus of the action, e.g.: to strike with a knife | |
| intensional semantics | a branch of semantic studies concerned with the analysis of the content (i.e. meaning) of a given expression, but not the relations of signs to the objects of the real world | |
| Cf: extensional semantics | ||
| intralinguistic | concerning relations of units within a particular language system | internal |
| Cf: extralinguistic | ||
| irrealis | semantic category the differential meaning of which is denotation of imagined, projected or otherwise unreal situations | |
| Cf: "realis" | ||
| junction | relationship of two elements which is so close that they may be considered to be one composite name for what might in many cases just as well have been called by a single name (0. Jespersen) | |
| Cf: nexus | ||
| lexeme | word taken as an invariant unity of form and meaning | |
| lexical paradigm of nomination | an interclass system of four-stage derivative part of speech correlative constituents, reflecting regular part of speech correlations in the notional part of the lexicon (M. Blokh) | derivational paradigm of nomination |
| limitive verb | a verb expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action | terminative verb |
| Cf: non-limitive verb | ||
| linking | syntactic relationship of clauses of the same rank (either both independent or both dependent) | |
| Cf: binding | ||
| locutionary act | uttering of a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference (J. Austin) | |
| Cf: illocutionary act, perlocutionary act | ||
| loose sentence-groups | sentences in which no element can be considered as the leading (or main) element (E. Kruisinga) | ~ coordinate sentence |
| mental paradigm | systemic principles of analysis | |
| modality | the way in which proposition is modified in terms of reality/non-reality (possibility, necessity, desire, obligation, belief, hope, hypothesis, etc.). It shows the relation of the nominative content to reality (M. Blokh) | |
| Cf: predication | ||
| mononomination | naming a single referent Cf: polynomination | |
| morph | a repeated segment of phonemic string; a combination of phonemes that has a meaning which cannot be subdivided into smaller meaningful units (W.N. Francis) | |
| Cf: allomorph, morpheme | ||
| morpheme | the smallest meaningful part of a word expressing a generalized, significative meaning. It's a group of allomorphs that are semantically similar and in complementary distribution | |
| Cf: morph, allomorph | ||
| morphophoneme | 1. a phoneme in semasiologo-morpholog- | |
| ical function (Z. Harris); | ||
| narrative | the telling of stories | narration |
| neutralization | a type of oppositional reduction by which a neutralized language unit becomes fully functionally identified with its counter-member | |
| Cf: transposition | ||
| nexus | a predicative (and semi-predicative) relation between words (O. Jespersen) | |
| Cf.: junction | ||
| nomination | naming a referent Cf: predication | |
| non-contrastive distribution | relations of different morphs having the same function in the identical environments, e.g.: learned- learnt | |
| Cf: contrastive distribution, complementary distribution | ||
| non-limitive verb | verb not expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action | unlimitive verb, non-terminative verb, durative, cursive |
| Cf: limitive verbs | ||
| non-personal verb | a verb which doesn't agree with a subject, the doer of the denoted action | impersonal verb |
| Cf: personal verbs | ||
| notional part of speech | a part of speech of full nominative value Cf: functional part of speech | |
| nucleus (of a | a root or a combination of roots including possible non-roots, attributive to respective roots | |
| morphological | Cf: root, stem, affix | |
| construction) | ||
| Object (as a semantic role) | entity (thing) which is relocated or changed; whose existence is at the focus of attention, e.g.: to break the window. Sometimes 0. is identified with patient, i.e. entity which is the victim of some action: to kill a fox. | |
| objectivity | the ability of a verb to take an object of any kind | |
| Cf: transitivity | ||
| objective verb | a verb taking an object of any kind (direct, indirect, prepositional) | |
| Cf: transitive verbs | ||
| oblique verbal form | the form of a verb which expresses the categorial meanings of irreality | non-real mood form of a verb, Subjunctive |
| Cf: indicative verbal form | ||
| opposition | correlation of categorial forms having a certain function | |
| oppositional reduction | the process of curtailing an opposition of categorial forms | oppositional substitution |
| Cf: neutralization, transposition | ||
| overt morpheme | an explicit morpheme, not zeroed Cf: covert morpheme | |
| paradigmatic | referring to language system on the basis of invariant-variant relations, connected on a non-linear basis | systemic |
| Cf: syntagmatic | ||
| part of speech | a class of words distinguished by a particular set of lexico-grammatical features | |
| Participant (as a semantic role) | a person acting together with the Agent, but who is somehow "overshadowed" by him: You have me. to ride with. Cf: Agent | |
| particle | a functional part of speech which actualizes limiting and specifying meanings | |
| personal verb | a verb which agrees with a subject denoting the doer of the action | |
| Cf: non-personal verb, impersonal verb | ||
| phoneme | the smallest constituent of a word having no meaning but fulfilling the function of differentiating morphemes | |
| phatic communion | language used more for the purpose of establishing an atmosphere of maintaining social contact than for exchanging information or ideas: in speech, informal comments on weather, or an enquiry about health at the beginning of a conversation (B. Malinowski | |
| phraseme | a combination of two or more words as a representative of the corresponding language level | phrase, word-group, word-grouping, syntactic syntagma |
| Pluralia Tantum nouns | nouns having only the plural form Cf: Singularia Tantum nouns | absolute plural nouns |
| pragmatic factor | a factor relevant for the actualization of a message in a concrete communicative situation | |
| predicate calculus | the logical calculus in which the expressions include predicate letters, variables and quantifiers, names and operation letters, as well as expressions for truth functions and the propositional variables of the prepositional calculus | |
| predication | the act of referring the nominative content of the sentence to reality (M. Blokh) Cf: nomination | |
| prefix | a term in word-formation for an affix added at the beginning of a word or base to form a new word, e.g.: re-write Cf: suffix, root | |
| prepared sentence/clause | a clause introduced by connectives Cf: unprepared sentence/clause | |
| presupposition | a proposition whose truth is necessary for either the truth or the falsity of another statement. It stays intact under negation and modal operators, e.g.: John is divorced (presupposition: John was married) - John is not divorced (presupposition: John is | |
| primary predication | predication expressed in a sentence which has as its predicate a finite form of the verb Cf: secondary predication, potential predication | complete predication, explicit predication, actual predication |
| privative opposition | an opposition based on the principle of | |
| presence/absence in its counter-members | ||
| of one and the same feature | ||
| Cf: gradual opposition, equipollent | ||
| opposition | ||
| proposeme | a language unit expressing a thought | ~ sentence |
| proposition | the content of a declarative sentence, that which is proposed, or stated, denied, questioned, etc., capable of truth and falsity | judgment |
| propositional acts | acts of referring and predicating (J.R. Searle) | |
| to qualify | 1. to ascribe qualities to smth., to charac | to describe to modify |
| terize; | ||
| 2. to limit | ||
| ranking clause | a nonembedded clause (M.A.K. Halliday) Cf.: embedded clause | |
| reference | 1. mentioning someone or something, | |
| either directly or indirectly; | ||
| 2. (logic, ling.) the activity or condition | ||
| through which one term or concept is | ||
| related to another or to objects in the world | ||
| Cf.: sense (2) | ||
| referent | the denoted object of the world Cf: sign | |
| reflective category | a category expressing categorial meanings which are not inherent in the referent in question, e.g.: person and number in the verb system (M. Blokh) | secondary category, non-inherent category |
| Cf: immanent category | ||
| relative generalization | relative degree of abstraction, working on the level of broad or general concepts | abstraction |
| Cf: absolute generalization | ||
| relevant | pertinent, applicable, bearing on the issue in question | |
| "repetition" plural | a specific plural form of the noun which acquires a pronounced stylistic marking due to the repetition of the noun in the singular, e.g.: He smoked cigarette after cigarette. | |
| replacive morpheme | a morpheme built up on the basis of root (or vowel) interchange; usually a root vowel that replaces another in a categori-al form, e.g.: smg - sang Cf: additive morpheme | |
| representamen | the type to which a coding convention assigns a certain content by means of certain interpretants; type-expressions conventionally correlated to a type-content by a given culture, irrespective of the fact that they can be used in order to communicate effe | |
| Cf: interpretant, sign | ||
| Result (as a semantic role) | entity that emerges due to some action, e.g.: She has written a letter. | Factitive (Ch. Fillmore) |
| retrospective coordination | establishing relation between the given action and some prior action or moment | phase taxis, order |
| root | the element left after all affixes have been removed from a complex word, carrying the basic lexical meaning of the word | |
| Cf: nucleus, stem, affix | ||
| secondary predication | predication expressed by potentially predicative complexes with non-finite forms of the verb and verbal nouns | potential predication, incomplete/partial predication, implicit predication, semi-predication |
| Cf: primary predication | ||
| segmental morpheme | a morpheme made up by phonemes Cf: suprasegmental morpheme | |
| semantic feature | (in componential analysis) an elementary component of meaning. Their aggregation makes up the integral meaning of a language unit | |
| semantics | the study of meaning of words and sentences, their denotations, connotations, implications, and ambiguities | |
| semes | meanings differentiated by the opposition of signemic units | semantic feature |
| sememe | a generalized element of meaning | lexico-seman-tic variant |
| semi-notional words | words which have a complete nominative meaning but fulfil syntactic functions typical of functional words. | |
| Cf: notional words, functional words | ||
| semi-predicative construction | a construction made up by a non-finite form of the verb and a substantive element denoting the subject or object of the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb | potentially |
| Cf: fully predicative construction | predicative | |
| construction, | ||
| propositional | ||
| construction | ||
| semi-proper nouns | proper nouns with mixed, identifying and typifying, meanings | semi-names |
| sense | 1. = meaning; | |
| 2. paradigmatic (intensional) meaning. | ||
| Cf: reference; | ||
| 3. actual meaning of a language unit; | ||
| 4. a submeaning, e.g: various senses of the | ||
| word "mark" | ||
| sign | a material designator of a meaning, a concrete token element used in the concrete process of communication and reference. | |
| Cf.: symbol, icon, index, representamen, interpretant | ||
| sineme | a unit of language having a semantic content, e.g.: morpheme, word (M. Blokh) | |
| Cf: corteme | ||
| significative | suggestive of a meaning | |
| signifie | meaning | |
| Singularia Tantum nouns | nouns having only the singular form Cf.: Pluralia Tantum nouns | absolute singular nouns |
| Source (as a semantic role) | smth. which gives rise/origin to another entity, cause of some action, e.g.: He. sells books. | |
| stem | a term in grammar and word-formation for a root plus the element that fits it into the flow of speech | |
| Cf: root, nucleus, affix | ||
| structure | 1. the set of relations between | |
| the elements of a system; | ||
| 2. construction | ||
| stylization | the function of a dicteme which consists in referring it to a particular style (M. Blokh) | |
| subjunct | a tertiary word in a junction (O. Jespersen) | |
| Cf: adjunct (2) | ||
| substance | 1. the essence or material part; | |
| 2. the essence which underlies all phenom | ||
| ena; | ||
| 3. that which is real; | ||
| 4. that which has qualities and character | ||
| istics | ||
| substantive | a noun | |
| suffix | an affix added at the end of a word, base, or root to form a new word or form of the word | |
| Cf: prefix, infix, root | ||
| supplement | a non-obligatory adjunct Cf: complement | optional adjunct |
| suppletivity | the formation of word-forms from different roots | |
| Cf: affixation, inner inflection, outer inflection | ||
| suprasegmental unit | an element accompanying the realization of utterances and expressing different modifica-tional meanings, such as accent, intonation contours, pauses, patterns of word-order | |
| Cf.: segmental unit/morpheme | ||
| surface structure | the resultant syntactic construction derived through transformations of the deep structure | |
| Cf.: deep structure | ||
| symbol | 1. smth. that represents smth. else, smth. | |
| concrete or material used to represent | ||
| smth., abstract or non-material; | ||
| 2. the most arbitrary kind of sign: the | ||
| word in language, the rose representing | ||
| love in literature, etc. (Ch.S. Peirce) | ||
| Cf: icon, index, sign | ||
| synchronic | referring to a certain stage in the development of a phenomenon; coexistent | |
| Cf: diachronic | ||
| syntagma (syntactic) | a word-group consisting of two or more notional elements | word combination, phrase |
| syntagmatic | connected on a linear basis Cf: paradigmatic | |
| system | a structured set of elements connected by a common function | |
| topic | something about which something is said (predicated) | |
| Cf: comment | ||
| topicalization | 1. process whereby knowledge of certain things/individuals is "foregrounded", i.e. taken from long-term memory stores to some working memory, in which the established information may be combined with the incoming new information (T.A. van Dijk); 2. the fo | thematization |
| transformation | transition from one syntactic pattern to another syntactic pattern with the preservation of its notional parts | |
| Transformational-Generative Grammar | a type of generative grammar, first introduced by N. Chomsky ("Three Models for the Description of Language", 1956). It holds that some rules are transformational, i.e. they change one structure into another according to such prescribed conventions as mo | |
| transitivity | the ability of a verb to take a direct object | |
| Cf: objectivity | ||
| transposition | the use of a language element in the contextual conditions typical of its • oppositional counter-member by which it fulfils two functions simultaneously | |
| Cf: neutralization | ||
| unit | a constituent of a system | element |
| utterance acts | uttering words and sentences (J.R. Searle) | |
| valency | the ability of a language unit to take an adjunct, potential combinability of a language unit | |
| verbal | a non-finite form of the verb Cf: finite verb | verbid |
| Glossary of Pragmalinguistic Terms | ||
| Entry | Definition | |
| alerter | an opening element preceding the actual request (i.e., term of address, attention getter, endearment term, offensive term, etc.) | |
| appealer | an element used by a speaker when he wishes to appeal to the hearer's benevolent understanding. It functions to elicit a hearer's signal, and occurs in a syntactically final position, and may signal turn-availability (e.g.: Will you? O'key? Aren't we?) | |
| beneficiary | the one who benefits from the performing of the act required by the speaker | |
| cajoler | conventionalized speech item whose semantic content is of little transparent relevance to the discourse meaning. It commonly doesn't enter into syntactical structures, but is interspersed to increase, establish, or restore harmony between interlocutors, | |
| coerciveness | imperative force | |
| cognitive load | (= locution, proposition) the literal content of a sentence, the situation denoted | |
| commitment indicator | an upgrader serving to indicate the speaker's heightened degree of commitment (involvement) vis-a-vis the state of affairs referred to in the proposition (e.g.: I'm sure, certainly, etc.) | |
| communicative competence | an ability to employ speech acts to achieve the desired communicative end | |
| communicative risk | a potential breakdown in communication, a failure to achieve the desired communicative result | |
| conventionality thesis | thesis formulated by J.Searle, according to which certain forms tend to become conventionally established as the standard idiomatic forms for indirect speech acts | |
| cultural transposition | transfer of native speech categories to the target language | |
| directness | the degree to which the speaker's illocutionary intent is apparent from the locution. In this sense it is a pragmalinguistic category which leads itself to psycholinguistic validation. It is related, but by no means coexistive, with politeness | |
| downtoner | a sententional or propositional modifier which is used by a speaker in order to modulate the impact his speech act is likely to have on the hearer (e.g.: possibly, perhaps) | |
| hedge | an internal modifier used by the speaker to avoid a precise propositional specification and, consequently, the potential provocation of such precision (e.g.: somehow, kind (sort) of) | |
| illocutionary point | the purpose of communication, or of a particular speech act; the speaker's intent = illocutionary intent | |
| indirectness | an intended exploitation of a gap between the speaker's meaning and the utterance's meaning: the hearer identifies an utterance as a hint. As a result of this belief he assigns the speaker some hidden intention | |
| intensifier | an upgrader used to intensify elements of the proposition (e.g.: a terrible/frightful man) | |
| interactional style | a method (or a complex of methods) employed by the speaker to achieve a particular illocutionary point and characterizing him this or that way | |
| interactive constraints | fundamental concerns influencing the choice of strategies in a message. They are: | |
| 1. appropriateness: "be polite"; | ||
| 2. efficiency (effectiveness): "be clear, direct"; | ||
| 3. concern for minimizing imposition; | ||
| 4. concern for avoiding negative evaluation by the hearer; | ||
| 5. likelihood of use (of a strategy within a specific request | ||
| situation) | ||
| internal modifiers | elements within the utterance proper, the presence of which is not essential for the utterance to be potentially understood as, for example, a request. They serve as indicating devices used to signal pragmatic force, and as socio-prag-matic devices meant | |
| interpersonal end | the purpose of maintaining relationship between the speaker and the hearer | |
| locution | aspect of an utterance which consists in its cognitive load | |
| locution derivable | (= obligation statement) the illocutionary intent which is directly derivable from the semantics of the locution | |
| locutionary force | the act of speaking, the form and content of the utterance | |
| negative politeness | (=deference politeness, concern for minimizing imposition) the degree to which an utterance avoids imposing on the hearer's freedom of actions; means of protecting the hearer's negative face | |
| performative | a verb that characterizes the relationship between the speaker and the addressee explicating the illocutionary force of the utterance | |
| performative structure | a structure that involves the speaker's attempts to get the hearer to perform some action by virtue of the hearer having recognized that such an attempt is being made | |
| perlocutionary force | the effect of the utterance on the addressee | |
| politeness marker | an internal modifier added to a request to bid for cooperative behaviour (e.g.: you know, please, etc.) | |
| politeness theory | pragmatic theory formulated by G. Leech, according to which the speaker may be willing to save the hearer's face by means of a polite and tactful behaviour in a context of a face-threatening request | |
| pragmatic error/ deficit | failure to convey or comprehend the intended illocutionary force or politeness value | |
| pragmatic opacity | (= indirectness) lack of transparency specifically and intentionally employed by the speaker to convey a meaning which differs, in some way, from the utterance meaning | |
| pragmatic transfer | transfer of native procedures and lingual means of speech act performance to interlanguage communication | |
| Principle of cooperation | "make your conversational contribution such as required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged" (Grice) | |
| - of manner | "be clear, brief, avoid obscurity" (Grice) | |
| -of quality | "speak only the truth" (Grice) | |
| - of relevance | "speak to the point" (Grice) | |
| - of politeness | "save the addressee's face, be polite" (Grice) | |
| - of effective means | (= rationality principle) "Given a desired end, one is to choose that action which most effectively, and at least cost, attains that end" (Kosher) | |
| propositional content | the cognitive content of an utterance (= locution); one of the components, alongside of the pragmatic component, of the semantics of an utterance | |
| sentence meaning | standard interpretation assigned by a particular lingual structure only | |
| sociopragmatics | sociological interface of pragmatics that studies the ways in which pragmatic performance is subjected to specific social conditions | |
| sociopragmatic factor | a factor determining the specific character of communication: age, sex, relative status of the interlocutors, situational constraints, degree of familiarity, etc. | |
| sociopragmatic failure | the error learners commit when they assess the relevant situational factors as the basis of their native sociopragmatic norms | |
| speech act | a form of interpersonal communication which is distinguished by a specific communicative intention of the speaker and its own linguistic markers | |
| subjectivizers | elements by which the speaker explicitly expresses his subjective opinion vis-a-vis the state of affairs referred to in the proposition, thus lowering the assertiveness of the request (e.g.: I'm afraid, I wonder, I think) | |
| supportive move | a unit external to the request which modifies its impact by either aggravating or mitigating its force | |
| understater | an internal modifier by means of which the speaker under-represents the state of affairs denoted in the proposition (a bit, a little) | |
| upgrader | an element which functions to increase the impact of a request: intensifier, commitment indicator, expletive, time intensifier, lexical uptoner, determination marker, repetition of request, orthographical (supersegmental) emphasis, emphatic addition | |
| utterance meaning | meaning rendered in a specific context by having the hearer recognize the intention of the speaker | |
| want statement | a statement which contains the expression of the speaker's volition, desire |
Список рекомендуемой литературы
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Основная литература:
1. Александрова О.В., Комова Т.А. Современный английский язык: морфология и синтаксис. = Modern English Grammar: Morphology and Syntax: учеб. пособие для студ. лингв. вузов и фак. ин. языков / О.В. Александрова, Т.А. Комова. – М.: Изд. центр «Академия», 2007. – 224 с.
2. Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. / Л.С. Бархударов. – М.: Высш. шк., 1967. – 220 c.
3. Бархударов Л.С. Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка. / Л.С. Бархударов. – М.: Высш. шк., 1975. – 156 c.
4. Блох М.Я. Теоретические основы грамматики: Учебник / М.Я. Блох. – М.: Высш. шк., 2002. – 160 с.
5. Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учеб. – 4-е изд. испр. / М.Я. Блох. – М.: Высш. шк., 2003. – 423 с.
6. Блох М.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике английского языка: учебное пособие / М.Я. Блох, Т.Н. Семенова, С.В. Тимофеева. – М.: Высш. шк., 2004. – 471 с.
7. Ильиш Б.А. Строй современного английского языка (Теоретический курс). / Б.А. Ильиш. – М.: Л.: Просвещение, 1965. – 378 с.
8. Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В.В., Почепцов Г.Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка: Учебник. / – М.: Высш. шк., 1981. – 285 с.
9. Москальская О.И. Грамматика текста: Учеб. пособие. / О.И. Москальская. – М.: Высш. шк., 1981. – 184 с.
10. Смирницкий А.И. Морфология английского языка. / А.И. Смирницкий. – М.: Изд-во лит. на иностр. яз., 1959. – 440 c.
11. Смирницкий А.И. Синтаксис английского языка. / А.И. Смирницкий. – М.: ИЛИЯ, 1957. – 286 c.
Дополнительная литература:
- Воронцова Г.Н. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. / Г.Н. Воронцова. – М.: Изд-во лит. на иностр. яз., 1960. – 400 с.
- Гальперин И.Р. Текст как объект лингвистического исследования. / И.Р. Гальперин. – М.: Наука, 1981. – 140 с.
- Гуревич В.В. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков: Учеб. пособие. – 3-е изд. испр. / В.В. Гуревич. – М.: Наука, Флинта, 2004. – 168 с.
- Жигадло В.Н., Иванова И.П., Иофик Л.Л. Современный английский язык. Теоретический курс грамматики: Учебник. / В.Н. Жигадло, И.П. Иванова, Л.Л. Иофик. – М.: Изд-во лит. на иностр. яз., 1956. – 351 с.
- Корнеева Е.А., Кобрина Н.А., Гузеева К.А., Оссовская М.И. Пособие по морфологии английского языка (с упражнениями). / Е.А. Корнеева и др. – М.: Высш. шк., 1973. – 232 с.
- Кверк Р., Гринбаум С., Лич Дж., Свартвик Я. Грамматика современного английского языка для университетов. = Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A University Grammar of English / Под ред. И.П. Верховской. – М.: Высш. шк., 1982. – 391 с.
- Новое в зарубежной лингвистике: Вып. Х. Лингвистическая семантика. Сб., пер. с англ. / Сост., вступ. ст. и общ. ред. В.А. Звегинцева. – М.: Прогресс, 1981. – 568 с.
- Новое в зарубежной лингвистике: Вып. 11. Современные синтаксические теории в американской лингвистике. / Сост., общ. ред. и вступ. ст. А.Е. Кибрика. – М.: Прогресс, 1982. – 461 с.
- Новое в зарубежной лингвистике: Вып. 13. Логика и лингвистика (Проблемы референции). / Сост., ред. и вступ. ст. Н.Д. Арутюновой. – М.: Радуга, 1982. – 432 с.
- Новое в зарубежной лингвистике: Вып. 17. Теория речевых актов. Сб., пер. с англ. / Сост. и вступ. ст. И.М. Кобозевой и В.З. Демьянкова. Общ. ред. Б.Ю. Городецкого. – М.: Прогресс, 1986. – 424 с.
- Слюсарева Н.А. Проблемы функционального синтаксиса современного английского языка. / Н.А. Слюсарева. – М.: Наука, 1981. – 208 с.
- Тураева З.Я. Категория времени. Время грамматическое и время художественное. / З.Я. Тураева. – М.: Высш. шк., 1986. – 220 с.
- Штелинг Д.А. Грамматическая семантика английского языка. Фактор человека в языке: Учеб. пособие. – М.: МГИМО, ЧеРо, 1996. – 254 с.
- Шевякова В.Е. Современный английский язык. Порядок слов, актуальное членение, интонация. / В.Е. Шевякова. – М.: Наука, 1980. – 381 с.
- Хаймович Б.С., Роговская Б.И. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка: Учебное пособие. / Б.С. Хаймович, Б.И. Роговская. – М.: Высш. шк., 1967. – 299 с.
- Иртеньева Р.Ф., Шапкин А.П., Блох М.Я. Структура предложения в английском языке (практический курс): Учебное пособие. = Irtenyeva N.F., Shapkin A.P., Bloch M.Y. The Structure of the English Sentence. – М.: Высш. шк., 1969. – 160 с.
- Пальмер Ф.Р. Семантика (очерк) = Palmer F.R. Semantics. A new outline. / Предисл. и коммент. М.В. Никитина. – М.: Высш. шк., 1982. – 111 с.
- Chalker, S. Weiner E. The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. / S. Chalker, E. Weiner. – N.Y.: Oxford University Press. – 448 p.
- Jule, George. Pragmatics. // Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Series Editor H. Y. Widdowson. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. – 138 с.
20. Widdowson H. Y. Linguistics. // Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Series Editor H. Y. Widdowson. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. – 134 p.
21. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь / гл. ред. В. Н. Ярцева. – М.: Сов. энциклопедия, 1990. – 685 с.
* The asterisk indicates that the following word is incorrect.
* V here denotes the stem of the verb; N, the noun
* Here I disclose the semantic structure of the three frames A, B, C used by Ch. Fries for his tests.
