Содержание

Morphology

PARTS OF SPEECH..................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

THE VERB..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Formation of verb categories................................................................................................................................................................ 5

Morphological composition.................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Basic verb forms....................................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Regular and irregular verbs.................................................................................................................................................................. 5

The category of tense............................................................................................................................................................................ 14

The category of aspect.......................................................................................................................................................................... 14

The category of perfect......................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Present tenses......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Past tenses............................................................................................................................................................................................... 29

Future tenses........................................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Future in the past tenses....................................................................................................................................................................... 42

The sequence of tenses.......................................................................................................................................................................... 43

The category of voice............................................................................................................................................................................ 46

The category of mood............................................................................................................................................................................ 54

NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (VERBALS)............................................................................................................................ 70

The Infinitive........................................................................................................................................................................................... 70

Predicative constructions with the infinitive................................................................................................................................... 85

The for-to-infinitive construction....................................................................................................................................................... 85

The objective with the infinitive construction................................................................................................................................. 86

The gerund.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 88

The gerund and the infinitive compared........................................................................................................................................... 95

The gerund and the verbal noun compared...................................................................................................................................... 97

The participle......................................................................................................................................................................................... 98

MODAL VERBS....................................................................................................................................................................................... 114

Can......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 114

May......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 117

Must........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 120

To have to, have got to....................................................................................................................................................................... 122

To be to.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 123

Need....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125

Ought to................................................................................................................................................................................................. 126

Should.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 127

Shall....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 128

Will......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 129

Dare........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 131

THE NOUN................................................................................................................................................................................................ 132

Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 132

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 133

Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 134

The category of number...................................................................................................................................................................... 135

The category of case........................................................................................................................................................................... 144

THE ARTICLE......................................................................................................................................................................................... 147

The use of the indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................ 149

The use of the definite article............................................................................................................................................................ 151

Absence of the article......................................................................................................................................................................... 155

THE ADJECTIVE..................................................................................................................................................................................... 162

Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 162

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 163

Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 164

Adjectives of participial origin........................................................................................................................................................ 166

Adjectives and adverbs....................................................................................................................................................................... 166

Patterns of combinability.................................................................................................................................................................. 166

Syntactic functions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 168

Substantivized adjectives................................................................................................................................................................... 168

THE PRONOUN........................................................................................................................................................................................ 169

Morphological composition and categorical characteristics.................................................................................................... 170

Subclasses of pronouns and their functions.................................................................................................................................. 170

THE NUMERAL....................................................................................................................................................................................... 182

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 183

Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 184

Patterns of combinability.................................................................................................................................................................. 184

Syntactic function............................................................................................................................................................................... 186

Substantivized numerals.................................................................................................................................................................... 187

THE STATIVE.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 187

Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 188

Syntactic function............................................................................................................................................................................... 188

THE ADVERB.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 189

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 190

Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 190

Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 192

Syntactic functions and patterns of combinability....................................................................................................................... 192

Positional characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................. 194

MODAL WORDS...................................................................................................................................................................................... 194

THE PREPOSITION................................................................................................................................................................................ 195

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 196

Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 196

Combinability of prepositions.......................................................................................................................................................... 198

Positional characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................. 198

THE CONJUNCTION.............................................................................................................................................................................. 199

Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 200

Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 200

Combinability of conjunctions and their functions..................................................................................................................... 201

THE CONJUNCTS................................................................................................................................................................................... 203

THE PARTICLE....................................................................................................................................................................................... 205

THE INTERJECTION............................................................................................................................................................................. 206

Syntax

THE SENTENCE...................................................................................................................................................................................... 207

Structural classification of sentences............................................................................................................................................. 208

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE..................................................................................................................................................................... 209

Two-member sentences....................................................................................................................................................................... 209

One-member sentences........................................................................................................................................................................ 209

Elliptical (incomplete) sentences..................................................................................................................................................... 210

COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES.................................................................................................................................. 211

Declarative sentences......................................................................................................................................................................... 211

Interrogative sentences...................................................................................................................................................................... 212

Imperative sentences........................................................................................................................................................................... 216

Exclamatory sentences....................................................................................................................................................................... 218

NON-SENTENCE UTTERANCES........................................................................................................................................................ 219

NEGATION................................................................................................................................................................................................ 220

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE................................................................................................................................................................. 224

Ways of expressing parts of the sentence........................................................................................................................................ 224

Levels of syntactical analysis............................................................................................................................................................ 227

The subject............................................................................................................................................................................................ 228

The predicate........................................................................................................................................................................................ 233

Structural classification of the predicate....................................................................................................................................... 233

The simple predicate........................................................................................................................................................................... 233

The compound predicate.................................................................................................................................................................... 235

Agreement of the predicate with the subject.................................................................................................................................. 243

The object.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 249

Ways of expressing the object........................................................................................................................................................... 249

Types of object..................................................................................................................................................................................... 250

Objects to adjectives........................................................................................................................................................................... 256

Objects to statives................................................................................................................................................................................ 257

Objects to adverbs............................................................................................................................................................................... 257

The attribute......................................................................................................................................................................................... 257

Ways of expressing attributes........................................................................................................................................................... 257

The position of attributes................................................................................................................................................................... 261

Types of connection between an attribute and its headword..................................................................................................... 262

The apposition..................................................................................................................................................................................... 263

Types of connection between an apposition and its headword................................................................................................. 264

The adverbial modifier....................................................................................................................................................................... 265

Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers................................................................................................................... 265

Detached adverbial modifiers........................................................................................................................................................... 266

Ways of expressing adverbial modifiers......................................................................................................................................... 267

Structural classification of the adverbial modifier...................................................................................................................... 268

Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier...................................................................................................................... 269

Semantic classes of adverbial modifiers......................................................................................................................................... 269

Independent elements of the sentence............................................................................................................................................. 274

WORD ORDER......................................................................................................................................................................................... 276

The grammatical function of word order........................................................................................................................................ 276

The emphatic and communicative functions of word order........................................................................................................ 280

The linking function of word order.................................................................................................................................................. 282

THE PREDICATIVE COMPLEXES..................................................................................................................................................... 282

The subjective predicative constructions...................................................................................................................................... 284

The objective predicative constructions......................................................................................................................................... 286

The absolute nominative constructions.......................................................................................................................................... 291

The for-to-infinitive constructions................................................................................................................................................... 294

The gerundial predicative constructions........................................................................................................................................ 295

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE............................................................................................................................................................ 296

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE............................................................................................................................................................. 297

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE................................................................................................................................................................ 301

Formal indicators of subordination (connectors)........................................................................................................................ 301

Functional classification of subordinate clauses......................................................................................................................... 304

The complex sentence with nominal clauses.................................................................................................................................. 304

The complex sentence with an attributive clause.......................................................................................................................... 309

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause........................................................................................................................... 312

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of place............................................................................................................ 313

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of time.............................................................................................................. 313

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of manner........................................................................................................ 315

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison................................................................................................ 315

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of condition.................................................................................................... 316

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of concession.................................................................................................. 319

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of purpose....................................................................................................... 321

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of cause........................................................................................................... 321

The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of result (consequence)................................................................................ 322

The complex sentence with mutually subordinated clauses........................................................................................................ 323

Pseudo-complex sentences................................................................................................................................................................. 324

Appended clauses (повторы с уточнением)................................................................................................................................. 325

Absolute (or indendent) subordinate clauses................................................................................................................................ 325

Parenthetical clauses (parentheses)................................................................................................................................................ 326

INDIRECT SPEECH................................................................................................................................................................................ 326

APPENDIX I. SOME WAYS OF SENTENCE EXTENSION............................................................................................................ 329

APPENDIX II. SOME SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES OF ANALYSIS................................................................................................. 333

APPENDIX III. SUGGESTED WAYS OF SENTENCE ANALYSIS............................................................................................... 335