Additional reading

19 20 21 22 23 24 25

1. стр. 146-148

2. стр. 87-89

3. –

4. стр. 238-246

5. стр. 220-222, 228-230. 238-243

Practical tasks:

6. Comment on the use of degrees of comparison with the following adverbs and adjectives:

– He spoke even (quickly) and (correctly) than I expected.

– -We are on most peaceful terms.

– -He is the least unlikely to be suspected of the crime.

– -I’ve been with well-behaved people, far (well-behaved) than you.
XIV. Verb. The general characteristics.

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. They also include those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc, rather than actions.

Its central function is predicate.

From the point of view of their outward structure, verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building, as well as by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.

The word stems may be simple, sound-replacive, stress-replacive, expanded, composite and phrasal.

The original simple verb stems are not numerous: go, take, read, etc.

One of the most productive means of forming verb lexemes is conversion “noun-verb”: to park, to man, to water. The sound-replacive type of derivation and the stress replacive type of derivation are unproductive: food-to feed, blood-to bleed, import-to import, transport, record, insult. The typical suffixes expanding the stem of the verb are: -ate (cultivate), -en (broaden), -ify (clarify), -ize (normalize); the prefixes are: be- (belittle, befriend, bewitch, bewilder), en-/em- (enable, enclose, embody, embed); re (remake), under- (undergo), over- (overestimate), sub- (subdivide), mis- (misunderstand), un- (undo). The composite (compound) verb stems correspond to the composite non-verb stems from which they are derived (whitewash, proofread). The phrasal verb stems occupy an intermediary position between analytical forms of verb and syntactic word combinations. Two types should be mentioned: have, give, take with a noun (to have breakfast, take a breath, take a glance, give a smile) and head verb with a verbal postposition (go on, take off, pick up).

The first category is the category of finitude dividing the verb into finite and non-finite forms, then the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Among the forms the infinitive occupies the position of the principal representative of the verb lexeme as a whole. Its function is to name the process and to serve as the derivative base for all the other forms of the verb.

The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features. On the upper level of division two unequal sets are identified: the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs), and the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and functional verbs). The first set is derivationally open, it includes the bulk of the verbal lexicon. The second set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characterized by individual relational properties. Semi-notional and functional verbs serve as markers of predication and include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, semi-notional introducer verbs, and link-verbs. Auxiliary verbs serve for building categorial forms of the verbs: be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, may, might. Modal verbs are used to express meanings of attitude: ability, obligation, permission. They also can express probability. It can be tested by correlating the first meaning with equivalents “be obliged, be permitted” and the second meaning with equivalents “be likely, be probable”. The modal verbs can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need used to, dare are defective in forms, and are suppletively supplemented by stative groups (be able to, have to and other equivalents). There is also a group of semi-notional introducer verbs (seem, happen, turn out, try, fail, manage).

On the bases of the subject-process relation, all the notional verbs can be divided into actional and statal. Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer (do, perform, read, learn and the like). Statal verbs denote the state of their subject (live, worry, suffer, see, know). A third set of verbs can be distinguished, which express processes (thaw, ripen, deteriorate). It can be shown by transformational tests: The snow is thawing – the snow is in the state of thawing.

Some subsets of verbs are oppositions of verbs of mental process and sensual process. Within the first group there are verbs of mental perception and mental activity (know-think, admire-assess, notice-note); within the second group there verbs of physical perception and physical perceptional activity (hear-listen, see-look, smell (пахнуть)-smell (нюхать).

Aspective semantics exposes the inner character of the process denoted by the verb. Two aspective subclasses should be recognized: limitive (предельные) unlimitive, durative (непредельные): arrive, come, find, drop/sleep, behave, hope.

Another division is into verbs transitive and intransitive. Transitivity is the ability of the verb to take direct object, i.e. an object which is immediately affected by the process. The direct object is joined to the verb without a preposition.

By morphological criteria verbs are divided into the open group of regular and a closed group of irregular verbs.

Glossary of Linguistic Terms

1. sound-replacive – основанный на чередовании звуков

2. stress-replacive – основанный на изменении ударения

3. expanded stem – производная основа

4. conversion – конверсия, переход из одной части речи в другую

5. compound - сложный

6. finitude – личность/безличность

7. mood - наклонение

8. voice - залог

9. aspect - вид

10. tense - время