The Field of Folklore

Folklore comprises the unrecorded traditions of a people. The study of folklore records and analyses these traditions because they reveal the common life of the mind below the level of "high" or for­mal culture, which is recorded by civilizations as the learned heri­tage of their times.

Whenever, out of habit or inclination, the folk indulge in songs and dances, in ancient games, the merry-making, to mark the passing of the year or the usual festivities whenever in many callings the knowledge, experience, wisdom, skill, the habits and practices of the past are handed down by example or spoken word, by the older to the

new generations, without reference to book, print, or school teacher, then we have folklore in its own perennial domain, at work as ever, alive and shifting, always apt to grasp and assimilate new elements on its way.

Folklore comprises traditional creations of peoples, primitive and civilized. These are achieved by using sounds, words, poetry and prose and include also folk beliefs or superstitions, customs and performanc­es, dances and plays.

A simple and workable arrangement of the types of folklore may be based on three modes of existence: folklore is either verbal (prov­erbs, rhymes, myths, legends, folksong, ballads), partly verbal (su­perstitions, customs and festivals, folk dances and games) or non­verbal (folk gestures, folk music, folk architecture, handicrafts, folk costumes and foods).

Folklore under various names has been with us ever since man began to take an objective look at his culture.

The study of folk life is that of man's mental, spiritual and materi­al struggle towards civilization, of that "complex whole", which in­cludes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other ca­pabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

Men of learning have in the last century or so gathered, classified and studied a vast body of materials appertaining to folk tradition.

Some of our surviving customs can trace their ancestry a very long way back, and have hitherto resisted all attempts to uproot them, many others have vanished for ever. Especially they disappeared dur­ing the last hundred and fifty years or so, for this was a period of great change everywhere, affecting traditional customs as much as anything else.

Customs involve both verbal and non-verbal elements that are traditionally applied in specific circumstances. But unlike supersti­tions, true customs do not involve faith in the magical results of such application. Thus, the "customs" that incorporate traditional belief in the supernatural should properly be classified as superstition.

A custom is a traditional practice, a mode of individual behav­iour or a habit of social life — that is transmitted by word of mouth or imitation, then ingrained by social pressure, common usage and pa­rental authority. When customs are associated with holidays they become calendar customs, and when such events are celebrated an­nually by a whole community they become festivals.

In a sense transmitting folklore is itself a custom. Story-telling, ballad-singing, riddle-posing, game and prank playing and the like

are all customary acts, for their survival depends on tradition rather than on official control.

Most true folk customs in the US are associated with special events, especially those that require rites of passage — birth, marriage, and death. They begin at once when a child is born. Boy babies are cus­tomarily dressed in blue, and girls in pink.

Celebrations of birthday anniversaries may begin as early as the first year in some families and they may continue through one's en­tire life. More commonly, however, birthday parties are dropped at about high school age sometimes to be revived once at the symbolic age of maturity (21 years) and again as an annual celebration in later middle age. Children's birthdays almost invariably are the occasion for spanking — one spank for each year, with extras "to grow in", or "for good measure". Children in some regions maintain a fairly rigid schedule of extra-punishment days before and after the birthday an­niversary - "pinch day", "hit day", "kiss day" and so forth.

Birthday gift at a party may be held over the head of the celebrat­ing child for him to guess the donor or to announce the use to which he intends to put that gift. For each correct guess he is granted a wish.

The loss of "baby teeth" is one of the few other non-holiday occa­sions in a child's life when customs are followed.

Courtship and engagement begin a new round of customs that lead to a grand final at marriage, the most tradition-regulated personal ceremony in American life.

Wedding customs begin with the "shower" often several of them, to emphasize different kinds of needed gifts.

Customs of the wedding itself are numerous and largely regulated by tradition. They include the dress of participants, the seating of guests, the choice of attendants, kissing the bride, throwing rice, pass­ing the bride's shoe around for money, playing pranks on the married couple, and decorating the car.

Wedding customs, however rough, are essentially celebration of a happy time. But customs associated with death are generally fraught with suggestions of fear or superstition.

From youth to old age, at work and at play, in school and in wid­ening arches of our orbits, from the country with which we identify, we encounter folk traditions, customs, recipes, memories, sayings and allusions that in sum constitute a yearly folklore brew.

Only by turning to the folklore of peoples, probing into its mean­ings and functions, and searching for links between different bodies

of tradition may we hope to understand the intellectual and spiritual life of man in its broadest dimensions.

1. a) Answers these questions.

1. What distinctions can be pointed out between folklore and the formal culture of a people? 2. How and in what situations does folklore manifest itself? 3. Can you specify different types of folk­lore as presented in the text above? 4. What definition can be given to a custom as an example of partly verbal folklore? 5. When and how can a custom become a festival according to the author of the text? 6. What true folk customs are associated with the events that are described in the text as those that require "rites of passage"? 7. What are the anniversary wedding customs that you learned about from the text?

b) Find in the text the facts the author gives to illustrate the following.

1. Most true folk customs begin when a child is born. 2. In a sense,
transmitting folklore is itself a custom. 3. Unlike superstitions, true
customs do not involve faith in magical results of their applications.

c) Summarize the text in four paragraphs: 1) the definition of folklore; 2) the
classification of the types of folklore; 3) different kinds of customs and 4) what
can be achieved through studying folklore.

2. Use the thematic vocabulary in answering the following problem ques­
tions.

1. The variety of holidays and festivals in all social communities is
determined by the diversity of their characters. One can talk about
international, national, political, cultural, religious, ethnic, etc. holi­
days.

Please, give examples of these holidays and say which of them is your favourite and why.

2. The origin of May Day as the international day of working class
solidarity can be traced back to the end of the 19th century. After the
brutal suppression of demonstrations for the eight hour working day
in the US on May 1, 1886, American trade unions and the Socialist
International decided in 1889 to hold such demonstrations every-

where. Since then, May Day has been the symbol of the working class unity.

Do you happen to know that May Day is not a public holiday in many countries?

Can you speak about the attitude to May Day in Russia now?

3. There is no need to deny that the celebrations of the Interna­
tional Women's Day have acquired new features and developed mod­
ern customs in the course of time.

Do you approve of these new customs? How will you explain them to your British or American friend emphasizing its difference from Mother's Day in their countries?

4. National customs and traditions have been historically associ­
ated with seasonal changes of the year. The celebration of the magic
force of the first day can be seen in the pagan tradition of marking
the first day of winter, spring, having festivals in honour of natural
forces — the Sun, the Moon (e. g. Sunday, Monday). Pancake Day
(Maslyanitsa) in Russia dates back to the ancient Slavic tradition
of saying farewell to winter and welcoming spring by singing, danc­
ing, burning the straw effigy of Maslyanitsa and eating pancakes,
which represent little images of the Sun.

Do you know about any other folk holidays marking the seasonal changes? What is the role of such holidays in the cultural develop­ment of a nation and in securing the continuity of national customs and traditions?

5. Celebrations like Olympic Games, Youth Festivals, Neighbour­
hood Festivals, Russian Winter festival, etc. have appeared only re­
cently. Some of them have obviously roots in the cultural heritage of
the peoples, others emphasize the modern problems and aims.

What in your opinion is the cultural, political (emotional, moral, psychological, etc.) impact and message of such new festivities for the younger generation?

6. Some young people refuse to observe the old rituals and have a
wedding party considering it a terrible nuisance and a waste of mon­
ey. What is your idea of celebrating a wedding? Should the old cus­
toms and traditions be observed or should it be held in an absolutely
new manner?

7. A school teacher is sure to take part in organizing celebrations of different kinds. What do you think a school teacher's opinion should be on the role holidays, traditions and rituals play in the education and character-shaping of the younger generation?

8. You may remember or know, that decorating a New Year tree was considered to be a superstition in the twenties in Soviet Russia. How do you account for that attitude and what in fact is the meaning of the New Year tree to children and adults?

9. What part do you think the national cuisine plays in the cele­bration of different holidays and festivals? Can you describe some Russian (or English, French, German, etc.) special dishes associated particularly with celebrations?

3. Read the short passages and answer the questions about them giving your impressions to the point:

1. Some people find it difficult to tell the difference between a cus­tom and a habit. Customs are social and habits are personal. Smoking is a bad habit and certainly an expensive one. Customs are common to a large number of people who belong to a society or a nation. For men giving up their seats to old people, to women carrying babies, to people who are ill should be a national custom.

Can you describe any national customs giving your impressions of them?

2.1 have always been attracted by the people of unusual habits, I mean quiet, orderly people who enrich their humdrum existences by adopting odd quirks and passions, unlikely routine or harmless ma­nia for useless objects.

Life, I am sure, would be very much poorer without such people in it. Sometimes, I feel, I am lacking in personality since I have none of these strange habits.

And what do you think of people who have such unusual habits as collecting dolls, railway carriages or something like that? Could you describe any such hobbies and share your impressions of the people indulging in them?

3. Tradition is a chain which links the present with the past, part of our task is to interpret the life and the activity of tradition

as a formative and perfecting factor in the development of men in society.

What do you think of the role the tradition plays in our life and what does the successful performance of that role depend on?

4. Story-telling and story-collecting used to be an old tradition in the times well before the scientific and technological revolution. Scot­land has stories of so many different sorts that the richness of their variety is almost beyond believing. The tales and legends have been handed down by word of mouth often for generations. Many were passed on by wandering story-tellers, others were composed for spe­cial occasions such as weddings and christenings.

No matter what brings folk together, you may be sure that there will be a grand feast spread, and the singing of old songs and ballads, the dancing of reels and most probably speeches to follow. But in the old days, the high point of the entertainment was the story.

Can you give your impressions of a traditional wedding you re­cently attended (Russian, Georgian, Moldavian, etc.)? Could you describe the old and new customs and rituals you saw there?

4. Below are opinions on folklore, traditions and customs, a) Read them first.

1. The most widely acknowledged form of Art — Folklore, that is
verbal, musical and material (traditional handicrafts), is almost com­
pletely devoid of anything that could be called bad taste or poor
imitation.

Why? (What makes me say so?)

I think it is especially due to the fact that national Art is created by everyone and for everyone within the bounds of centuries old tra­ditions. There is a common theme of Beauty in everything that peo­ple did or made. (Academician Likhachev)

2. No, I am not at all against those rituals which are inseparable
from our everyday lives.

We should preserve those customs, rites and ceremonies that have become part and parcel of our existence. In addition new ones should be created and developed.

But in what we have and in what we will have let's try and see the moral, political and social meanings. And the things which con­tradict those meanings should probably be rejected. (Yu. Silomonov)

b) Spend a few moments individually thinking of further arguments you will use to back up the opinion.

c) Now discuss the opinions with your partner.

5. When people talk about something they are bound to make mistakes. (To err is human.) But not everyone is able to correct these mistakes in a delicate way without hurting other people's feelings.

a) Read this dialogue. Note down the expressions in bold type the charac­ters use in correcting other people's misconceptions, wrong statements, mis­takes. Please, remember that correcting what people say and do involves vari­ety of communicative functions including disagreeing, making suggestions, expressing opinions, interrupting, etc..

Chairperson: OK, students. Your attention, please! Sorry to inter­rupt your private conversations but our speaker is ready to begin. May I introduce Mr Brown who's going to tell us a little about Amer­ican education system if I am correct?

Mr Brown: Good morning, students! Now please let's get this straight from the start, I was invited here to speak about American holidays.

Chairperson: I am sorry, there appears to have been a slight mis­understanding here. Am I mistaken in thinking you have been a head teacher for some 25 years in a deprived inner city area?

Mr Brown: I am afraid you've got it all wrong, I'm not a teacher. Actually, I've not even been in a school since I was 16.

Chairperson: Oh, dear, this is most embarrassing.

Mr Brown: Forgive me for mentioning it, but these talks have been very badly organised, I was even given the wrong room number.

Chairperson: Sorry about that, I really can't understand what's been happening. Anyway, would you like to tell us about American holi­days as you are here, may be starting with Halloween as it's October already. OK, students, please excuse the delay and listen carefully now.

Mr Brown: Originally, Halloween was a religious holiday. Today it is a day of fun and excitement. Children make faces in pumpkins (tur­nips are used in Britain) by removing the pulp and seeds and cutting holes in the shell for the eyes, nose and mouth. These pumpkins are called jack-o'-lanterns. A lighted candle is put inside to shine through

the holes. Children dress up in costumes; sometimes, according to tradition, as ghosts, goblins, witches, vampires and werewolves; some­times as pirates, sailors, ballerinas, folk heroes, etc. After dark, chil­dren walk around their neighbourhood, knocking on their neighbours' doors. They say "trick or treat", and their neighbours give them fruit or candy. Do you have any questions?

Question: Why do they say "trick or treat"?

Mr Brown: As far as I know, in the old days "trick or treat" had to perform songs and shifts for their neighbours. If the neighbours liked the performance, the children received a "treat" — again, fruit or can­dy. If not, the neighbours played a trick on the children — like throw­ing water on them.

Question: That doesn't sound like very much fun.

Mr Brown: Well, as a matter of fact, they don't do that any more.

Question: But if a child says "trick or treat", he still has to perform for his neighbours, right?

Mr Brown: Sorry, haven't I already mentioned that they don't perform any more.

Question: Why do trick-or-treaters dress up as goblins and witch­es? Do they want to frighten people?

Mr Brown: I don't think so. Remember, the trick-or-treaters are only children. In fact, their costumes are related to ancient tradi­tions, according to which ghosts and witches walked the streets on the last day of October.

Question: What do adults do on Halloween? Do they dress up?

Mr Brown: Actually, most adults stay at home, waiting for chil­dren to knock on their door. I think I should point out, however, that teenagers and young adults often go to costume parties as ghosts, goblins and witches, too.

Question: And Halloween falls on the last Thursday in November, doesn't it?

Mr Brown: If I may say so, I believe you've confused Halloween with Thanksgiving. Halloween falls on the thirty-first of October.

Chairperson: Any other questions? (pause) No? Thank you very much, Mr Brown.

b) Summarize the dialogue.

c) Make a speech on the American tradition to celebrate Halloween.

6. Pair work. Make up and act out a dialogue discussing national holidays.
Do library research and collect additional materials describing unusual national
holidays. Use the expressions of correcting people, agreement and disagreement,
etc..

1. Staying with your friends in Georgia, you discuss the customs and traditions of a national holiday with your host/hostess.

2. Be a host/hostess to a guest from Britain or the USA and dis­cuss the beauty of Russian folk tradition in festivals. Point out the revival of traditions.

3. Exchange opinions with your partner on the multinational char­acter of our society and the advantages of enrichment for the various traditions in the multinational situations.

7. As you know the Americans and British have very much in common in their
cultural traditions, for example Christmas and Halloween. But certain celebra­
tions originating in historical events are particular to only one country. An ex­
ample: this is the British Bonfire Night.

a) Read the text:

Remember, remember, the fifth of November Gunpowder Treason and Plot. I see no reason why Gunpowder Treason Should ever be forgot.

Guy

When one person says of another, "What a guy!" it isn't always meant as a compliment, and this can be explained by the history of the word. On November 5th in the year 1605 the famous Gunpowder Plot was perpetrated as a protest against the sharp enforcement of the anti-Catholic laws of King James I. The anniversary of this event is celebrated each year in England and is called Guy Fawkes Day in memory of the chief character in the drama. This fellow Fawkes took a house adjoining the Houses of Parliament in London, tunneled through to the cellar, and concealed a nice fat charge of gunpowder

in the coal bin. Unfortunately one of those conspirators betrayed their leader and this led to the discovery of the plot and Guy Fawkes being tortured and hanged. On this day it is customary in England to carry an effigy of Fawkes through the streets and then to burn it. 1) The children ask passers-by the traditional phrase "Have you got a penny for the guy, please?" collecting the money to buy fireworks with. In the evening on the 5th of November, the children have a big bonfire, eat roast chestnuts and let off the fireworks. 2) Many other people, besides Guy Fawkes, have been burned as dummies on November 5th... Napoleon Bonaparte became a "Guy" many times during his lifetime, and in 1945 a dummy of Hitler was burned on hundreds of fires all over Britain. 3) "Beefeaters" still search the cellars of the House of Commons and the House of Lords on the first day of a new Parliament, before members take their seats. They have always done so since 1605.

b) Make up a dialogue with your partner similar to the one on Halloween. Use conversational formulas of correcting people, agreement and disagree­ment.

9. Talking points. For Group work.

a) Split into small buzz groups of 3—4 and get ready to represent certain coun­try's national customs and traditions at an international conference or festival.

b) Elect the chairperson to conduct and run the conference.

c) Delegate a speaker from a buzz group to take part in making a talk and a panel discussion.