Syntactical stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasm; inversion and its types

Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical "flesh". True enough, parallel constructions almost always include some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). Parallel constructionscan be partial and complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principal of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. There are two main functions of parallel constructions: semantic (suggest equal semantic significance of the component parts) and structural ( rhythmical design to these component parts).

Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the first sentence (clause) has a direct word order - SPO, the second one will have it inverted - OPS. Like parallel constructions chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quantity of the utterance, and the pause caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be likened to a caesura in prosody.

Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of chiasmus is very often used as an independent SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate (predicative) precedes the subject; or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair. Correspondingly, we differentiate between partial and a complete inversion. The stylistic device of inversion should not be confused with grammatical inversion which is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals with the rearrangement of the normative word order. Questions may also be rearranged: "Your mother is at home?" asks one of the characters of J. Baldwin's novel. The inverted question presupposes the answer with more certainty than the normative one. It is the assuredness of the speaker of the positive answer that constitutes additional information which is brought into the question by the inverted word order. Interrogative constructions with the direct word order may be viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversion: direct w/o —» grammatical inversion —» direct w/o.

Semantic figures of co-occurrence – figures of inequality: specifiers, climax, anti-climax.

Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of names in text. It studies types of linear arrangement of meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called “figures of co-occurrence” (or figures of replacement). There are 3 types of semantic interrelations: figures of identity, figures of inequality, figures of contrast.

Clarifying (specifying) synonyms ( synonymous repetition used to characterize different aspects of the same referent). E.g: You undercut sinful, insidious hog.

Climax (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in Greek means “ladder”).- consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g: What differences if it rained, hailed blew, snowed, cycloned?

Anti-climax (back gradation – instead of a few elements growing in intensity without relief there unexpectedly appears a weak or contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or ridiculous). E.g.: the woman who could face the very devil himself or a mouse – goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning.