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More than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.) многочленные

Binary бинарные

Equipollent эквиполентные

Gradual градуальные

Privative привативные

Grammatical Opposition

Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms (e.g. the grammatical category of number – singular and plural forms). The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called opposition – book - books (unmarked member/marked member).

Thus grammatical oppositions expose the paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category.

All grammatical categories find their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized through the opposition singular – plural.

The opposition may be defined as a generalised correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed.

The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast, while differential features immediately express the function in question.

Types of opposition:

I) qualitative types

II) quantitative types

The binary privative opposition: неравноправие членов оппозиции

is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member (the ‘marked’, ‘strong’, ‘positive’ member commonly designated by the symbol +), is characterised by the presence of a certain differential feature (‘mark’), while the other member is characterised by the absence of this feature. (the ‘unmarked’, ‘weak’, ‘negative’ member commonly designated by the symbol —).

Examples:

продавец (–) – продавщица (+)

lion – lioness

goat – he/she-goat

give (sing., plur.) – gives (sing.)

[p, t, k] (devoiced) – [b, d, g] (voiced)

The equipollent opposition члены одинаково сильно проявляют признак грамматической категории, в рамках которой они противопоставлены

is formed by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive features.

Examples:

table (sing.) – tables (plural) within the category of number

[m] – [b] both bilabial consonants, [m] – sonorous nazalised, [b ] – plosive.

am — are — is.

Gradual oppositions основаны на интенсивности выражения признака

They are always more than binary.

An example of the gradual morphological opposition can be seen in the category of comparison: strong — stronger — strongest.

The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition; the other types of oppositions are reducible to it.

Example:

the verb-form listens is marked negatively as the present tense (tense —), negatively as the indicative mood (mood —), negatively as the passive voice (voice—), positively as the third person (person +), etc.

3.3. Neutralization/Reduction and Transposition

In the process of communication grammatical oppositions may undergo the processes of neutralization (oppositional reduction, oppositional substitution) and transposition.

In various contextual conditions, one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other, counter-member.

The opposition in this case is contracted and loses its formal distinctive force.

Example:

Man (used in the singular to denote people in general) conquers nature. The weak member of the categorial opposition of number has replaced the strong member.

Tonight we start for London.

The opposition ‘present — future’ has been reduced, the weak member (present) replacing the strong one (future).

The oppositional reduction above is stylistically indifferent.

Another kind of reduction is called ‘transposition’.

In this case one of the members of the opposition is placed in contextual conditions uncommon for it and the form is stylistically marked.

Example

That man is constantly complaining of something.

Transposition is based on the contrast between the members of the opposition, it may be defined as a contrastive use of the counter-member of the opposition. As a rule (but not exclusively) transpositionally employed is the strong member of the opposition.


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