2020-10-10
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United Kingdom intellectual property law is a part of English property law which concerns the rights of intangible but valuable information or rights. It covers in particular,
United Kingdom trade mark law
· Copyright law of the United Kingdom
· United Kingdom patent law
1) Intellectual property in the USA is defined as follows: “Intellectual property (IP) is a term referring to a number of distinct types of lawful monopolies over creations of the mind, both imaginative and commercial, & the equivalent fields of law. Under intellectual property law, owners are decided certain exclusive rights to a range of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property contain trademarks, patents, copyrights industrial design rights and trade secrets in some jurisdictions».
Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the United States.
Financial incentive
These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to reap monopoly profits. These monopoly profits provide a financial incentive for the creation of intellectual property, and pay associated research and development costs.
Economic growth
The legal monopoly approved by IP laws are credited with important contributions in the direction of economic development. Economists estimate that two-thirds of the assessment of large businesses in the U.S. can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to make 72 percent more value added per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".
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A joint research project of the WIP and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found " a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth ". However, correlation does not necessarily mean causation: given that the patent holders can freely relocate, the Nash equilibrium predicts they will obviously prefer operating in countries with strong IP laws. In some of the cases, the economic growth that comes with a stronger IP system is due to increase in stock capital from direct foreign investment, as was shown for Taiwan after the 1986 reform.
Economics
Intellectual property rights are temporary state-enforced monopolies regarding use and expression of ideas and information.
Intellectual property rights are generally limited to non-rival goods, that is, goods which can be used or enjoyed by many people simultaneously—the use by a person does not exclude use by another. This is compared to rival goods, such as clothing, which may only be used by one person at a time. For example, any number of public may make use of a mathematical formula at the same time. Some objections to the term intellectual property are based on the argument that property can only properly be applied to rival goods (or that one cannot "own" property of this sort).
Since non-rival goods may be simultaneously used (copied, for example) by many people (produced with minimal marginal cost), monopolies over distribution and use of works are meant to give producers incentive to create further works. The establishment of intellectual property rights, therefore, represents a trade-off, to balance the interest of society in the creation of non-rival goods (by encouraging their production) with the problems of monopoly power. Since the trade-off and the relevant benefits and costs to society will depend on many factors that may be detailed to each product and society, the optimum period of time during which the provisional monopoly rights should exist is unclear.
The laws
Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health, preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions, software patents and business method patents.
Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the tendency of the protections of intellectual property to expand, both in duration and in scope. The trend has been toward longer copyright protection (raising fears that it may some day be eternal). In addition, the developers and controllers of items of intellectual property have sought to bring more items under the protection. Patents have been granted for living organisms, and colors have been trademarked. Because they are systems of government-granted monopolies copyrights, patents, and trademarks are called intellectual monopoly privileges.
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Answer the following questions:
1. In what way is intellectual property law defined in England and the US?
2. When did the term intellectual property begin to be used and why?
3. What functions of intellectual property are identified by Americal law?
4. What is the structure of intellectual property in the two countries?
5. What is meant by monopoly profits?
6. What is the legal monopoly contributions in the direction of economic development?
7. What is the part of intellectual property in economic growth?
8. What is meant by non-rival goods?
9. What is the basic criticism of intellectual property?
10. What is your opinion on IP?
Task 11. Look through the text above to find the following definitions.
1) Интеллектуальное право Соединенного Королевства является частью английского права на собственность, которое касается прав на нематериальную, но ценную информацию или других прав. В частности, оно включает закон СК о товарном знаке, закон об авторском праве, и закон о патентном праве.
2) Термин «интеллектуальная собственность» обозначает ряд четко выраженных видов законных монополий на продукты умственной деятельности, которые созданы воображением, или имеют коммерческую ценность, а также соответствующие области права.
3) Право интеллектуальной собственности представляет собой регламентируемую государством монополию в отношении использования и выражения идей и информации.
4) Неконкурирующие товары — это такие товары, которые могут использоваться или которыми могут обладать одновременно много людей: использование одним человеком не исключает его использование другим.
5) Конкурирующие товары, например, одежда, это товары, которые могут использоваться лишь одним человеком в определенное время.
Task 12. Translate the following sentences from English into Russian, paying special attention to structures of emphasis. Underline them and read about them in grammar books for details.
1) It was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the United States.
2) Economists estimate that two-thirds of the assessment of large businesses in the U.S. can be traced to intangible assets. "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to make 72 percent more value added per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".
3) However, correlation does not necessarily mean causation: given that the patent holders can freely relocate, the Nash equilibrium predicts they will obviously prefer operating in countries with strong IP laws.
4) Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the tendency of the protections of intellectual property to expand, both in duration and in scope.
5)Patents have been granted for living organisms, and colors have been trademarked.
Task 13. Complete the following sentences.
1) The UK Intellectual Property lawis a part of............
2) The UK Intellectual Property law........... but valuable information or rights.
3)............ contain trademarks, patents, copyrights industrial design rights and trade secrets in............
4) In some of the cases, the economic growth that comes with................... is due to increase in stock capital from.............
5) The optimum period of time during............ should exist is unclear.
Task 14. Write a comparative essay on intellectual property and relevant laws in a few countries of your choice.
Task 15. Study the text below and answer the questions.
Tort law
Torts (in common law) are civil wrongs recognized by law as grounds for a lawsuit. These wrongs result in an injury or harm. This injury or harm can be the basis for a claim by injured party, i.e. this party can apply to a court. A victim of the harm can recover his loss as damages.
Damages are an award (usually in a form of money), paid to a person as compensation for loss or injury. Plaintiff can win a lawsuit if he shows that the action of the defendant was the cause of harm. The harm can be physical, emotional, reputational, or financial as well as violations of privacy, property, or constitutional rights.
The examples of torts are: auto accidents, false imprisonment, defamation or slander, copyright violations, environmental pollution (toxic torts).
The primary aim of tort law is to compensate for the damages of the injured party. Also it is important to prevent others from committing the same harms.
Differences between tort law and criminal law include:
the parties involved (the state starts an action in crime, a private individual, or plaintiff brings an action in tort);
the standard of proof (in criminal law standard of proof is higher);
results (a criminal action may result in a conviction and punishment, but an action in tort may result in liability of the defendant and damages awarded to the plaintiff).
Torts fall into three general categories:
intentional torts (unfair competition),
negligent torts (causing an accident by failing to obey traffic rules)
product liability or strict liability torts (liability for making and selling defective products).
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tort – деликт, гражданское правонарушение
civil wrong - гражданское правонарушение
ground – основание
injury - вред, повреждение; рана, ушиб
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harm - вред
claim – претензия, иск
injured party – потерпевшая сторона
apply – обращаться
victim – жертва
recover loss – восстановить потери
damages - убытки, возмещение убытков
award – вознаграждение
plaintiff – истец
defendant - ответчик
lawsuit – иск
defamation, slander – клевета
environmental pollution – загрязнение окружающей среды
starts an action – возбуждать иск
proof – доказывание
conviction – обвинение
liability – ответственность
brings an action - возбуждать иск
intentional tort – умышленное правонарушение
negligent tort – неумышленное правонарушение
Answer the following questions:
1. How can you define a tort?
2. What can be the basis for a claim by injured party?
3. What are damages?
4. What is necessary to win a lawsuit?
5. What types of harm do you know?
6. What are the examples of torts?
7. What are the aims of tort law?
8. What are the differences between tort law and criminal law?
9. What are the three general categories of torts?
Task 16.Fill in the table and describe difference between a criminal law action and a tort law action.
| Criminal law action* | Action in tort law | |
| Parties | ||
| standard of proof | ||
| Results |
*action – судебный процесс
Task 17. Translate the following sentences into English using as opposed to / unlike / in contrast to
(1) В отличие от уголовного процесса, который начинается государством, гражданский процесс начинается истцом. (2) В отличие от гражданского процесса, в уголовном процессе используются более высокие стандарты доказывания. (3) В отличие от уголовного процесса, результатом которого может быть обвинение и наказание ответчика, гражданский процесс может привести к присуждению выплаты компенсации истцу.
Task 18. Look at some more examples of torts:
Intentional torts
Intentional torts take place when someone intends to cause injuries to someone. For example, if Bob is angry with Lou and punches Lou in the stomach, Bob intended to hit Lou. Lou can sue Bob for any injuries he suffered from the punch. If the punch was very powerful and Lou needed to go to the doctor to see if there was any damage to his internal organs Lou could sue Bob for the costs of the office visit. Another interesting thing about intentional torts is that the intent can be transferred to other people. Instead of hitting Lou, Bob hit Jack who was standing next to Lou as Lou jumped out of the way to avoid the punch. The law allows Jack to sue Bob for his injuries because Bob punched him and he didn't want to be punched. Bob can't argue that he didn't intend to hit Jack.
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to cause injuries – причинить телесные повреждения
to punch – ударить кулаком
stomach – живот
internal organs – внутренние органы
transfer – юр.: уступка, передача
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Task 19. Read the information below and find Russian equivalents of the terms assault and battery.
Assault takes place when someone intentionally puts someone in the apprehension (fear) that they will be hurt. For example, if Jack pretends he is going to hit Joe with a tire iron but stops just before he would make contact with Joe's arm. Jack has engaged in an intentional act (swinging at Joe) done with the intent to make Joe
Battery occurs when someone intentionally causes a harmful contact to your body. For example, if Jack had actually hit Joe with the tire iron it is a battery. An important thing about battery is that it is still battery if the person throws an object at another person with the intent to hit the person with the flying object. If Jack had thrown a baseball at Joe and hit him, it would still be battery. It will also be battery if you touch something connected to the person. For example, if you hit someone in the backpack, it is still battery because the backpack is connected to the person.
think that he was going to get hit.
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to hurt – причинять боль, ранить, травмировать
tire iron – монтировка
to swing at sb – замахиваться на к-л
harmful – причиняющий вред здоровью
backpack – рюкзак
Task 20. Study the information below and answer the questions..
Trespass to land occurs when someone or something comes onto your property without your consent. There are three ways this tort might be committed.
1. Someone intentionally comes onto your property without permission.
2. Someone stays on your property after they were supposed to leave or you asked them to leave.
3. Someone puts an object on your property without your consent.
The person who came on your property or put an object on your property will be responsible for any damage they did to your property. For example, if Carl was shooting baskets and his basketball went in your yard and crushed two rose bushes, he will have to pay you for the damage.
Answer the following questions:
1. What is trespass to land?
2. What are the ways of committing this tort?
3. What could be consequences of trespass to land?
Task 21.Match the word combinations in the left column with their definitions in the right column:
| (1) grounds for a lawsuit | (a) компенсация за убытки истцу |
| (2) liability for making and selling defective products | (b) приводить к материальной ответственности ответчика |
| (3) damages awarded to the plaintiff | (c) основания для иска |
| (4) to result in liability of the defendant | (d) истец подает иск |
| (5) the plaintiff brings an action | (e) главная цель |
| (6) primary aim | (f) ответственность за производство и продажу некачественной продукции |
| (7) copyright violations | (g) обратиться в суд |
| (8) cause of harm | (h) получить компенсацию за убытки |
| (9) to recover damages | (i) нарушение авторских прав |
| (10) basis for a claim by injured party | (j) причина убытков |
| (11) intentional tort | (k) основание для обращения в суд потерпевшей стороной |
| (12) to apply to a court | (l) умышленное гражданское правонарушение |
Task 22. Translate the following sentences into English:
Деликт – гражданское правонарушение. Результат деликта – причинение вреда. Это является основанием для подачи иска потерпевшей стороной. Потерпевший может обратиться в суд и получить компенсацию ущерба. Обычно такая компенсация выплачивается в денежной форме. Чтобы выиграть дело, потерпевший должен доказать, что причиной вреда были действия ответчика. Существуют различные виды причиненного вреда: физический, эмоциональный, нарушение конституционных прав человека, нарушение неприкосновенности частной жизни, нарушение неприкосновенности частной собственности. Примерами деликта могут служить нарушение авторского права, клевета, загрязнение окружающей среды, дорожно-транспортные правонарушения.
Основные цели деликтного права – компенсировать убытки потерпевшей стороны и предотвратить подобные правонарушения.
Существуют отличия уголовного и гражданского процесса. В отличие от уголовного процесса, который начинается государством, гражданский процесс начинается истцом. В уголовном процессе используются более высокие стандарты доказывания. Результатом уголовного процесса может быть обвинение и наказание, а гражданского – присуждение компенсации убытков истцу ответчиком.
Task 23. Summarize the information on property law contained in the unit to write a review.
Task 24. Review the texts and focus on the three you like best.
(a) Speak about one of your favourite texts explaining what exactly made you like it.
(b) Present brief summaries of the other two texts identifying the main information and its support.
Unit 5. TAX LAW
Task 1. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other references & source books on law.
What is Tax law?
What is Tax law? It covers the rules, policies and laws that oversee the tax process, which involves charges on estates, transactions, property, income, licenses and more by the government. Taxation also includes duties on imports from foreign countries and all compulsory levies imposed by the government upon individuals benefit of the state.
The intricate body of tax law covers payment of taxes to a minimum of four levels of government, either directly or indirectly. Indirect taxes are assessed against products and services that are meant to be consumed, but are paid to an intermediary. For example, when you buy coffee at a local corner store, the retailer charges you tax on your coffee, which he/she subsequently pays to the government. Direct taxes are those you pay directly to the government and are imposed against things like land or real property, personal property, and income.
Primary taxation issues facing the governments world over include:
1) taxation on income
2) inheritance tax
3) taxation of capital gains
Inheritance Tax
An inheritance tax is a state tax that you pay when you receive money or property from the estate of a deceased person. Unlike the federal estate tax, the beneficiary of the property is responsible for paying the tax, not the estate.
How inheritance tax works
Once the executor of the estate has divided up the assets and distributed them to the beneficiaries, the inheritance tax comes into play. The tax amount is calculated separately for each individual beneficiary, and the beneficiary must pay the tax. For example, a state may charge a 5 percent tax on all inheritances larger than $2 million. Therefore, if your friend leaves you $5 million in his will, you only pay tax on $3 million, which is $150,000. The state would require you to report this information on an inheritance tax form.
Inheritance tax exemptions
Depending on your relationship to the decedent, you may receive an exemption or reduction in the amount of inheritance tax you must pay. For example, most states exempt a spouse from the tax when they inherit the property from another spouse.
Children and other dependents may qualify for the same exemption, though in some cases, only a portion of the inherited property may qualify. Generally, the higher rates of tax will be paid by those who inherit property from a decedent with whom they have no familial relationship.
Income tax
An income tax is a government levy (tax) imposed on individuals or entities (taxpayers) that varies with the income or profits (taxable income) of the taxpayer. Details vary widely by jurisdiction. Many jurisdictions refer to income tax on business entities as companies tax or corporation tax. Partnerships generally are not taxed; rather, the partners are taxed on their share of partnership items. Tax may be imposed by both a country and subdivisions thereof. Most jurisdictions exempt locally organized charitable organizations from tax.
Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times taxable income. The tax rate may increase as taxable income increases (referred to as graduated rates). Tax rates may vary by type or characteristics of the taxpayer. Capital gains may be taxed at different rates than other income. Credits of various sorts may be allowed that reduce tax. Some jurisdictions impose the higher of an income tax or a tax on an alternative base or measure of income.
Taxable income of taxpayers resident in the jurisdiction is generally total income less income producing expenses and other deductions. Generally, only net gain from sale of property, including goods held for sale, is included in income. Income of a corporation's shareholders usually includes distributions of profits from the corporation. Deductions typically include all income producing or business expenses including an allowance for recovery of costs of business assets. Many jurisdictions allow notional deductions for individuals, and may allow deduction of some personal expenses. Most jurisdictions either do not tax income earned outside the jurisdiction or allow a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions on such income. Nonresidents are taxed only on certain types of income from sources within the jurisdictions, with few exceptions.
Most jurisdictions require self-assessment of the tax and require payers of some types of income to withhold tax from those payments. Advance payments of tax by taxpayers may be required. Taxpayers not timely paying tax owed are generally subject to significant penalties, which may include jail for individuals or revocation of an entity's legal existence.
