Word-derivation

The analysis of morphemic composition of words defines the ultimate meaningful constituents, their typical sequences and arrangement, but it does not reveal the hierarchy of morphemes making up the word, neither does it reveal the way a word is constructed, nor how a new word of similar structure should be understood. The morphemic analysis does not aim at finding out the nature and arrangement of immediate constituents which underlie the structural and semantic type of the word, e.g. words unmanly and discouragement morphemically are referred to the same type as both are segmented into three ultimate constituents representing one root, one prefix and one suffix. However the arrangement and the nature of immediate constituents and consequently the relationship of morphemes in these words is different. In the lexeme unmanly the prefixational morpheme un- is added to the sequence of morphemes manly producing the meaning not manly, not the way a man does. In the lexeme discouragement the suffixational morpheme –ment is combined with the sequence of root and prefixal morphemes discourage producing the meaning to give in, to take away the courage, confidence, or hope.

The nature, type and arrangement of the immediate constituents of the word are known as the derivative structure.

According to the derivative structure all word fall into two big classes: simplexes (or non-derived words) and complexes (or derived words). Simplexes are words that derivationally cannot be segmented into immediate constituents. For example hand, come, blue, etc. are simplexes which coincide with root-morphemes, while anxious, theory, public, etc. are simplexes consisting of a sequence of bound morphemes.

Complexes are lexemes that depend on some simpler lexical item, i.e. they are motivated by their constituent parts; for example, the meaning of the word kindness is understood from the meanings of its components.

The basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns. The relations between words with a common root but of different derivative structure are known as derivational relations. The derived word and derivative relations make the subject of study at the derivational level of analysis. It aims at establishing correlations between different types of words, the structural and semantic patterns the words are built on, the way new words appear in the language.

A derivational base as a functional unit is defined as the constituent to which the rule of word-formation is applied. Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes:

1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degree of complexity;

2. Bases that coincide with word-forms;

3. Bases that coincide with word-groups.

Bases of the first class make the largest and commonest group of components of derived words of various classes. Bases built on morphological stems of different degree of complexity are functionally and semantically distinct from all kinds of stems.

Functionally, the morphological stem is that part of the lexeme that remains unchanged throughout the grammatical paradigm. For example the grammatical paradigm of the word “ to remain” is the form “remain” as it is not changed throughout the grammatical paradigm of a verb (remaining, remained). The morphological stem predicts the paradigm of the word. Thus the stem of the word “nice” foresees the paradigm of degrees of comparison as the lexemes belongs to the class of adjectives.

Semantically the stem stands for the whole semantic structure of the word; it represents all its lexical meanings. The morphological stem “glass” stands for both the meaning “drinking vessel or its contents” and “hard, transparent, easily-broken substance”.

Derivational basis are built on morphological stems but they differ from them. If the morphological stem predicts the grammatical paradigm, the derivational base is the starting point for new words to be formed. That is why it illustrates the derivational potential only. For example the derivational base hand- which is nominal in character gives rise to nouns (hand-rail, hand-bag, shorthand, handful), to adjectives (handy), to verbs (to hand, to hand in), etc. Similarly the base rich- may be one of the immediate constituents of the noun richness, the adjective gold-rich, and the verb to enrich.

Unlike the morphological stem the derivational base cannot be polysemantic because one can modify only one meaning at a time. Thus, in order to get an adjective characterizing the material of which something is made the meaning “ hard, transparent, easily broken material ” of the morphological stem glass can be taken and one gets the lexeme glassy. In order to obtain a noun denoting the volume, the container the meaning “ drinking vessel or its contents ” of the morphological stem glass should be modified. As a result the word glassful appears.

Derivationally the morphological stems (on which the derivational bases are built) may be:

1. Simple, which consist of only one, semantically non-motivated constituent. The most characteristic feature of the simple stems in Modern English is the phonetic and graphic identity with the root-morpheme and the word-form that habitually represents the word as a whole. Simple stems may be monomorphic units (hand, cat, live, nice, kind, hot, smell) and morphemic sequences made up of bound and pseudo-morphemes (pocket, motion, notion, retain, receive, horrible, theory, anxious).

2. Derived stems are semantically and structurally motivated, and are the results of the application of the word-formation rules. It follows that they are usually made up of two immediate constituents, e.g. the morphological stem of the word girlish (girl- + -ish) may serve as a derivational base for the lexeme girlishness.

3. Compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated, but unlike the derived stems both immediate constituents of compound stems are stems themselves. The derivative structure and morphemic composition of each immediate constituent may be of different degree of complexity, e.g. the compound stem of the noun match-box consists of two simple stems; the stem of the noun letter-writer is composed of one simple (letter) and one derived (writer) stem; the stem of the lexeme aircraft-carrier consists of a compound stem (air- + -craft) and a derived one (carry- + -er).

The second class of derivational bases is made up of word-forms. It is obvious that word-forms functioning as parts of the word lose all syntactic properties they possess in independent use. This class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms – the present and the past participles, e.g. unknown, smilingly, mocking-bird, ice-bound, easy-going, etc.

The third class of derivational bases is made up of word-groups. Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of bases. Word-groups serving as derivational bases lose their morphological and syntactic properties proper to them as self-contained lexical units, e.g. blue-eyed (blue eyes + ed), do-gooder (to do good + -er), second-rateness (second rate + -ness), etc.

Derivational affixes are immediate constituents of numerous derived words in all parts of speech. Derivational affixes differ from affixational morphemes in their function within the word, in their distribution and their meaning. Derivational affixes possess two main functions:

1. Stem-building function which is common to all affixational morphemes. It is the function of shaping a morphemic sequence, or a word-form, or a phrase into the part of the lexeme capable of taking a set of grammatical inflexions, i.e. to form the grammatical paradigm.

2. Word building function which is the function of repatterning a derivational base and coining a lexical unit of a structural and semantic type different from the source unit. The repatterning results in either a different part of speech or a different group within the same part of speech.

Lexicology is interested in the word building function mostly. For example, the derivational suffix –ness applied to the bases of different classes shapes derived stems thus making new words. In kindliness, girlishness, etc. it repatterns the adjectival stems kindly-, girlish-; in second-rate-ness, allatonceness it turns the phrases second rate, all at once into stems and consequently forms new nouns. In most cases affixes perform both functions simultaneously shaping derived stems and marking the relationship between different classes of lexical items.

However, certain derivational affixes may in individual sets of words perform only one function that of stem-building. The derivational suffix –ic performs both functions in lexemes like historic, economic, classic as it is applied to the bases history-, economy-, class- and forms stems of words of a different part of speech. But the same suffix in public, music, comic performs only its stem-building function shaping in this case a simple stem.

Stem-building is a common function shared by both derivational and non-derivational morphemes, but with the non-derivational it is only structural function. Besides, the non-derivational affixes shape only simple stems, for example, the morpheme –id in stupid, rapid, acid, humid; the morpheme –ish in publish, distinguish. It follows that the non-derivational morphemes are not applied to stems, but only to root-morphemes or morphemic sequences.

Semantically derivational affixes are characterized by a unity of part-of-speech meaning, lexical meaning and other types of morphemic meanings. Non-derivational affixes, as a rule, lack the lexical type of meaning.

The lexical meaning in derivational affixes may be viewed at different levels:

1. The lexical (denotational) meaning of a generic type is proper mostly not to an individual affix but to a set of affixes, forming a semantic subset. Thus, the meaning of resemblance is found in suffixes –ish, -like, -y (spiderish, spiderlike, spidery); the causative meaning possess the prefix en- (enslave, enrich), the suffixes –ize, -(i)fy (brutalize, formalize, beautify, simplify); the meaning of absence is conveyed by the prefix un- and the suffix –less (untrue, hopeless); the meaning of abstract quality if expressed by the suffixes –ness, -ity (kindness, stupidity).

2. An individual lexical meaning distinguishes the particular affix from all other members of the same semantic group. For example, the suffixes with the meaning of resemblance may be differentiated according to their individual lexical meaning: -like conveys an overall resemblance, -ish describes likeness to the inner, most typical qualities of the object, -y in most cases reveals likeness to outer shape, form, size of the object.

Derivational affixes are highly selective and each is applied to a specific set of bases which is due to the distributional meaning found in all affixes. Both bases and affixes are collocated according to a set of rules known as derivational patterns.

A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together. A pattern is a scheme indicative of the type of immediate constituents, their order and arrangement which signals the part of speech, the structural and semantic peculiarities common to all the individual words for which the pattern holds true.

Derivational patterns may represent the derivative structure at different levels of generalization:

1. The most generalized level is presented by the class membership of the immediate constituents and the direction of motivation, e.g. a + -sf = N, perf- + n = V, pref- + n = N, etc. According to the most generalized level (derivational formulas) all words are classified into suffixal derivatives (friendship, hopeless, movement, dictation), prefixal derivatives (rewrite, non-smoker, unhappy, enrich), conversions (to cut – a cut, paper – to paper), compounds (key-ring, music-lover, wind-driven).

2. The less generalized level specifies the base classes and individual affixes indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words, e.g. the pattern v + -er = N signals the derivatives represent a semantic set of active agents, denoting both animate and inanimate objects – reader, runner, singer; the pattern n + -er = N stands for the agents denoting residents or occupations – villager, gardener.

3. The least generalized level specifies lexico-semantic features of both immediate constituents, e.g. the nominal bases in the pattern n + -ful1 = A are limited by nouns of abstract meaning (beautiful, powerful) while in the pattern n + -ful2 = N nominal bases have the semantic component “container” – glassful, mouthful.

Derivational patterns are strict and rigid rules which cannot be changed according to the liking of a speaker, they represent the inner language law that should be followed.

An essential feature of derivational affixes is their combining power or valency, i.e. the type of stems with which they occur. The possibility of a particular stem taking a particular affix depends on phonomorphological, morphological and semantic factors. The suffix –ance (-ence) occurs only after letters b, t, d, dz, v, l, r, m, n. For example, disturbance, insistence, independence, but it is not used after s or z (condensation, organization).

It is impossible to describe the whole system. As an example the adjectives will be taken. The adjective-forming suffixes are mostly attached to noun stems. For example, -ed (barbed), -en (golden), -ful (careful), -less (careless), -ly (soldierly), -like (childlike), -y (hearty) and some others. The highly productive suffix –able can be combined with noun stems and verbal stems alike (clubbable, bearable). It is especially frequent in the pattern un- + verbal stem + -able (unbearable). Sometimes it is even attached to phrases producing compound-derivatives (unbrushoffable, ungetatable). These characteristics are of great importance both structurally and semantically.

Their structural significance is clear if we realize that to describe the system of a given vocabulary one must know the typical patterns on which its words are coined. To achieve this it is necessary not only to know the morphemes of which they consist but also to reveal their recurrent regular combinations and the relationship existing between them. This approach ensures a rigorously linguistic basis for the identification of lexico-grammatical classes within each part of speech.

It is worthy of note that from the point of view of the information theory the fact that not every affix is capable of combining with any given stem makes he code more reliable, protects it from noise, mistakes, and misunderstanding.

The valency of stems is not therefore unlimited. Noun stems can be followed by the noun-forming suffixes: -age (bondage), -dom (serfdom), -eer / -eir (profiteer, collier), -ess (waitress), -ful (spoonful), -hood (childhood) –ian (physician), -ics (linguistics), -ie / -y (daddy), -ing (flooring), -ism (heroism), -ist (violinist), -let (cloudlet), -ship (friendship). Noun stems can take adjective-forming suffixes, for example, - al / -ial (doctoral), -an (African), -ary (revolutionary), -ed (wooded), -ful (hopeful), -ic / -ical (historic, historical), -ish (childish), -like (businesslike), -ous / -ious / -eous (spacious), -ly (friendly), -y (cloudy). Verbs can be produced from the noun stems with the following suffixes: -ate (aerate), -en (hearten), -fy / -ify (speechify), -ize (sympathize).

Verbal stems are almost equal to noun stems in valency. They combine with the following noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage), -al (betrayal), -ee (evacuee), -ance / -ence (guidance, reference), -ant / -ent (assistant, student), -ing (uprising), -er / -or (painter, editor), ion / -tion / -ation (action, information), -ment (government). The adjective-forming suffixes used with verbal stems are: -able / -ible (agreeable, comprehensible), -ivel /-sivel / -tive (talkative), -some (meddlesome).

Adjectival stems furnish a shorter list: -dom (freedom), -ism (realism), -ly (firmly), -ness (btightness), -ity / -ty (reality, cruelty), -ish (reddish), -ate (differentiate), -en (sharpen), -fy / -ify (solidify).

Valency is very important semantically because the meaning of the derivative depends not only on the morphemes it is composed but also on combinations of stems and affixes that can be contrasted with it. Contrast is to be looked for in the use of the same morphemes in different environment and also in the use of different morphemes in environments otherwise the same.

A good example is furnished by the suffix –ish, as a suffix of adjectives. The combining possibilities of the suffix are vast but not unlimited. Boyish and waspish are used, whereas enemish and aspish are not. The constraints here are of semantic nature. It is regularly present in the names of nationalities, as for example: British, Irish, Spanish, English, Finnish. When added to noun stems, it forms adjectives of the type ‘having the nature of’ with a moderately derogatory colouring: bookish, churlish, sheepish, swinish. Childish has a derogatory twist of meaning; the adjective with a good sense is childlike.

With adjective stems the meaning is not derogatory, the adjective renders a moderate degree of the quality named: greenish (somewhat green), stiffish (somewhat stiff), thinnish (somewhat thin). The model is especially frequent with colours.

A similar but stylistically peculiar meaning is observed in combinations with numeral stems: eightyish, fortyish and the like are equivalent to ‘round about eighty’, ‘round about forty’. In colloquial speech the suffix is added to words denoting the time of the day: four-o’clockish or more often fourish means ‘round about four o’clock’.

The valency in affixes is closely connected with the productivity. Affixes may be productive and non-productive. The establishment of the productivity of affixes is connected with the diachronic analysis of the morphological means of the present-day English vocabulary. The word-forming activity of the affixes may change in the course of time. The process may continue so that in the long run some affixes become “dead”, i.e. they cannot be segmented from the lexeme, and the words containing them are morphologically indivisible.

Affixes and types of word-formation which are used to form new words in the period in question are called productive.

The most productive English prefixes are: de- (decontaminate), re- (rethink), pre- (prefabricate), non- (non-operational), un- (unfunny), anti- (antibiotic). The most productive noun suffixes with almost unlimited valency are: -ation (automation), -ee (refugee), -ism, -ist, -ry (gimmickry), -ics (cybernetics), -ance / ence, -or and some others. The verb-forming suffixes are only three: - ate, -ify, -ise / -ize (oxidate, denazify, vitaminize). The productive adjective –forming suffixes are: -able, -ed, -ic, -ish, -less, -y.

The productivity of an affix should not be confused with its frequency of occurrence which means the existence in the vocabulary of a great number of lexemes containing the morpheme in question. If the affix is registered in a great number of the words but does not produce new ones it is unproductive. For example the suffix –th (-t) may be observed in a certain number of words in the English vocabulary (length, health, flight, frost) but it is not used to produce new lexemes besides those already existing. No matter how long a list of examples containing the suffix –ful may be presented, there is no denying the fact that no new words have been coined of late on the pattern, and so the suffix is non-productive.

The lexical meaning of a non-productive suffix often fades off so that only its lexico-grammatical meaning remains. Alongside with –ly the non-productive adjective-forming suffix –some may be mentioned (handsome, troublesome, tiresome, loathsome, winsome).

The past of non-productive affixes may be different. Some of them were once productive (-hood, -ship, -th), others were never productive in English because they were borrowed from other languages together with the words that contained them. Due to the fact that there were other loan words containing the same morpheme, the affixes came to be recognized as such. Here can be mentioned –ant / -ent, -ive, -ous.

The term dead affix is used for those items which are disclosed by etymological analysis but have no relevance for the present day of the language. As a rule they are combined with bound stems: -d (deed, seed), -le / -l / -el (bridle, sail, hovel), -lock (wedlock), -nd (friend), -red (hatred), -k (walk, talk), -l (kneel, whirl). These suffixes are fused with their stems.

Etymological nature of affixes is a very important factor in the process of derivation and valency of affixes. Affixes may be divided into native and borrowed. Native affixes are those that existed in English in the Old English period or were formed from Old English words. The most important native suffixes are: -d, -dom, -ed, -en, -fold, -ful, -hood, -ing, -ish, -less, -let, -like, -y, -lock, -ly, -ness, -oc, -red, -ship, -some, -teen, -th, -ward, -wise.

The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as such, but only as parts of loan words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix has to satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of the affixes is possible only if the number of lexemes containing this affix is considerable, if its meaning and function are definite and clear enough, and if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural pattern already existing in the language.

The suffixes of foreign origin are classified according to their source into Latin (-able / -ible, -ant / -ent), French (-age, -ance / -ence, -ancy / -ency, -ard, -ate, -sy), Greek (-ist, -ite, -ism).

Words that are made up of elements derived from two or more different languages are called hybrids. English contains thousands of hybrid words. Thus, the lexeme readable has an English root and a suffix that is derived from the Latin –abilis and borrowed through French. Moreover, it is not an isolated case, but rather an established pattern: English stem + -able. The suffix of personal nouns –ist derived from the Greek agent suffix –istes forms part of many hybrids.

When a borrowed lexeme becomes firmly established in English this creates the possibility of using it as a stem combined with a native affix. The phenomenon may be illustrated by the pattern French stem + -less which is a native suffix. The same phenomenon occurs in prefixation. The noun bicycle has a Latin prefix and a Greek root. There are also hybrid compounds, for example blackguard (English + French), schoolboy (Greek + English).