2015-09-06
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(A) Japan is prone to earthquakes and typhoons. But sound construction, education and communications mean that the people are less vulnerable than citizens of poorer nations. Japan suffered 43 disasters from 1960 to 1981 with an average 63 deaths per disaster; Bangladesh had 63 catastrophes over the same period with an average death toll of over 10,000.
The difference in the killing power of disasters between rich and poor areas is dramatic. A 1972 earthquake in Managua, Nicaragua, killed 5,000 people; whereas the prevfous year a stronger quake in a similarly densely populated area around San Fernando, California, killed a total of just 65.
As the poor populations of the Third World increase, and as social, political and economic systems force these growing numbers to live on vulnerable ground, they fall foul of catastrophes in increasing numbers. Annual earthquake victims increased by 500 per cent from the 1960s to the 1970s; hurricane victims increased by 12 per cent.
Poverty increases the effect of disasters hundreds-fold, and Bangladesh is one of the world's poorest nations. Over 100 million people live in the delta of two of the world's great rivers; about 15 million of them less than 10 ft above sea-level.
(L. Timberlake, ‘The greatest threat on earth’, The Independent, 12.9.88.)
(B) Owing to the accident of recent geological history the fauna and flora of Britain itself is in many ways impoverished and still recovering from the last Ice Age; contrast the handful of native tree species here with the thousands in a tropical rain forest, or even the hundreds in the temperate forests of western China. It is the same with many animal groups. For every plant species in its own environment it is estimated that there may be 20 to 30 insects and other animals associated with it. This figure is much higher in a rain forest; the numbers in undisturbed tropical habitats are astronomic. There are estimated to be over 60,000 different species of weevil alone, and scientists can still only guess at the full diversity of insects in the Amazon or Borneo.
(J. F. Milner, 'Why it is absolutely necessary to go on naming names', The Independent, 1.8.89.)
TASK 5
Look at the global summaries following the article. Which do you think are satisfactory? Then discuss the characteristics of effective summaries and important steps in writing them.
Fire stones support catastrophe theory
Millions of small fire-blackened stones in Ireland and Scotland are giving support to the theory that northern parts of the British Isles were depopulated by a nuclear winter-style disaster almost 3,200 years ago.
Archaeologists believe the disaster was caused by a huge volcanic eruption in Iceland in 1159 BC. An examination by John Barber, of the Scottish Historic Buildings and Monuments Directorate, and other archaeologists, of these piles of burnt stones has led to the conclusion that hunting, as a major part of the pre-historic economy, declined rapidly after the mid twelflh century BC.
The stones were used in the cooking of meat and other food. Now normally referred to as "pot-boilers", they were the main method of boiling water when metal cauldrons were rare and pottery not strong enough to withstand great heat.
Modern tests have shown that normally it would have taken around three such stones, deposited into the pit of water over a 15-minute period, to bring the water to the boil. Many stones were retrieved, reheated and reused.
However, it is the distribution and dating of these fire-blackened mounds of stones which lends support to claims that an environmental catastrophe struck upland areas of the British Isles.
The earliest burnt mounds date from 2,100 BC and for most of the second millennium BC can be found in permanent settlement sites and temporary hunting camp sites. But in upland areas, as from the mid twelfth century BC, burnt mound material persists only in settlement sites.
Hunting camp sites ceased to occur and archaeologists believe this is linked to the volcanic eruption, which probably destrpyed much of upland Britain and led to the demise of many game species and, consequently, to a massive move away from hunting.
Research by Dr Michael Baillie and Dr Martin Munro, of the Palaeoecology Centre at Queens University, Belfast, paved the way for the development of the catastrophic depopulation theory. They discovered, through an examination of tree-ring data, that tree growth slowed dramatically at times of major northern hemispheric volcanic eruptions – inciuding that in Iceland.
It is thought that the eruption, which spewed at least 12 cubic km of volcanic dust into the atmosphere, and the ensuing environmental problems, reduced the population of northern Britain by as much as 90 per cent.
(The Guardian, November 1988.)
Summary 1
Tree-ring data research by Baillie and Munro at Queen's Universiry, Belfast, showing that tree growth slowed greatly at times of major northern hemisphere volcanic eruptions, gave rise to a catastrophic depopulation theory. According to this theory, northern parts of the British Isles were depopulated by one particularly large volcanic eruption in Iceland in 1159 BC (Keys, 1988).
There is further support for the theory in the examination by Barber and other archaeologists of mounds of small, fire-blackened stones used extensively by hunters to boil water. Their disappearance after the mid 12th century BC from everywhere but permanent settlement sites in upland areas suggests that the volcanic eruption may have killed off many game species and led to a decline in hunting (Keys, 1988).
Summary 2
The existence of piles of burnt stones has led archaeologists such as John Barber of the Scottish Historic Buildings and Monuments Directorate to conclude that a volcanic eruption in Iceland in 1159 BC led to the decline of hunting in the northern British Isles. The stones were used to boil water for cooking. After the mid 12th century BC, they were confined to permanent settlement sites and not found in temporary hunting camp sites, suggesting that the eruption had destroyed many game species. This is further evidence for the catastrophic depopulation theory put forward after research on tree-ring data by Baillie and Munro of the Palaeoecology Centre at Queens Universiry, Belfast. Their findings revealed that tree growth declined markedly following major volcanic eruptions in the northern hemisphere, such as the one in Iceland (Keys, 1988).
Summary 3
Archaeologists believe that a nuclear catastrophe 3,200 years ago led to the depopulation of northern parts of the British Isles. The disaster caused the blackening of millions of stones which have been found in temporary hunting campsites and permanent settlement sites. After the mid 12th century, hunting camp sites ceased to occur, suggesting huge depopulation (Keys, 1988).
Summary 4
The findings of archaeologists are lending support to the theory that depopulation occurred in the northern parts of the British Isles as a result of a serious catastrophc about 3,200 years ago. It is believed that a huge volcanic eruption in Iceland led to a rapid decline in hunting as an economic activity in prehistoric northern Britain.
An examination of piles of small fire-blackened stones by John Barber of the Scottish Historic Buildings and Monuments Directorate and other archaeologists has revealed that hunting probably ceased after the middle of the 12th century BC. The stones, which were the main means of boiling water and were normally used in threes, were found in permanent settlement sites and temporary hunting sites until the mid 12th century BC. From that time, they persisted only in settlement sites. Archaeologists believe that this is because volcanic eruptions led to the destruction of much of upland Britain and the demise of many game species which, in turn, caused a decline in hunting (Keys, 1988).
Summary 5
A volcanic eruption in 1159 BC in Iceland led to depopulation in northern parts of British Isles, according to the findings of scientists. Archaeologists have found that the absence of millions of small fire-blackened stones, after the middle of the 12th century BC, is evidence of a massive decline in hunting, the stones having been used to boil water by hunters in temporary camp sites (Keys, 1988).
Summary 6
The evidence of archaeologists on the distribution and dating of piles of burnt stones supports the theory that northern areas of the British Isles were depopulated by an enormous volcanic eruption almost 3,200 years ago (Keys, 1988). After the eruption, the stones, which were used to heat water for cooking food, were only found in permanent settlement sites. This suggests that hunting ceased as an activity as animals became extinct. I think this is more conclusive evidence than the previous research on tree-ring data. The research showed that tree growth slowed very markedly when there were large volcanic eruptions in the northern hemisphere. However, tree-ring research may not always be reliable.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE SUMMARY
Look at the summaries above which you considered satisfactory. Which of the following.characteristics do you think they have, in order to be effective summaries? Discuss.
(a) The same order of facts and ideas as the original
(b) Similar wording to the original with occasional phrases exactly the same
(c) Different sentence patterns from the original
(d) Additional ínformation, which the original writer omitted but which helps an understanding of the subject
(e) A personal comment on the subject
(f) Simpler vocabulary than the original
(g) Identification of key points in the original
IMPORTANT STEPS IN WRITING AN EFFECTIVE SUMMARY
A good summariser may arrive at the final point without being aware of the characteristics you have identified above. They are concerned with the final product rather than the process of reaching it. In writing a summary, which of the following steps do you think are important? Discuss.
(a) Read the whole text through once or twice before writing anything down.
(b) Copy important sentences.
(c) Ask questions about when the text was written and for what purpose in order to get a more detached perspective on it.
(d) Find the main idea(s).
(e) Take notes (or make a mind map).
(f) When writing your summary, put aside the original text and work from your notes, putting information into complete sentences in your own words.
