The World of Doublespeak

 

Originally from Racine, Wisconsin, William Lutz has been a professor of English at Rutgers University for the past fourteen years and was the editor of the “Quarterly Review of Doublespeak.” Through his book “Doublespeak: From Revenue Enhancement to Terminal Living” (1980), Lutz first awakened Americans to hoe people in important positions who were manipulating language. As chair of the National Council of Teachers of English’s committee on Public Doublespeak, Lutz has been a watchdog of public officials who use language to “mislead, distort, deceive, inflate, and circumvent, obfuscate.” Each year the committee presents the Orwell Awards, recognizing the most outrageous uses of public doublespeak in the worlds of government and business. Lutz’s most recent books are “The New Doublespeak: Why No One Knows What Anyone’s Saying Anymore.” (1997) and “Doublespeak Defined: Cut through the Bull**** and Get to the Point” (1999).

  In the following essay, which first appeared in Christopher Ricks and Leonard Michaels’s anthology “State of the Language”(1990) Lutz examines which makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant attractive, or at least tolerable.” He identifies the various types of doublespeak and cautions us about the possible serious affects that doublespeak can have on our thinking.

 Farmers no longer have cows, pigs, chicken, or other animals on their farms; according to the US Department of Agriculture, farmers have “grain - consuming animal units”(which,according to the Tax Reform Act of 1996, are kept in “single – purpose agricultural structures,”not pig pens and chicken coops). Attentive observers of the English language also learned recently that the multibillion dollar stock market crash of 19877 was simply a “ fourth quarter equity retreat”; that airplanes don’t crash, they just have “uncontrolled contact with the ground”; that janitors are really “environmental technicians”; that it was a “diagnostic misadventure of a high magnitude” which caused the death of a partner in Philadelphia hospital, not medical malpractice; and that President Reagan was not really unconscious while he underwent minor surgery, he was just “in a non-decision –making form. ”In other words, doublespeak continues to spread as the official language of public discourse.

Doublespeak is a blanket term for language which pretends to communicate but doesn’t, language which makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant attractive, or at least tolerable. It is language, which avoids, shifts, or denies responsibility, language which is at variance with its real or its purported meaning. It is a language which conceals or prevents thought. Basic to doublespeak is incongruity, the incongruity between what is said, or left unsaid, and what really is: between the word and the referent, between seem and be, between the essential function of language communication, and what doublespeak does – mislead, distort, deceive, inflate, circumvent, obfuscate.

   When shopping, we are asked to check our packages at the desk “for our convenience,” when it is not our convenience at all but the stores’ “program to reduce inventory shrinkage.” We see advertisements for “preowned”, “experienced”, or “previously distinguished” cars, for “genuine imitation leather”, “virgin vinyl”, or “real counterfeit diamonds.” Television offers not reruns but “encore telecasts” where the disadvantaged”,”economically no affluent” or “fiscal underachievers “live. Nonprofit organizations don’t make profit; they have “negative deficits” or “revenue excesses.” In the world of doublespeak dying is “terminal living.”

    We know that toothbrush is still a toothbrush even if the advertisement on television calls it “home plaque removal instrument,” and even that “nutritional avoidance therapy” means a diet. But who would guess that a “volume – related production schedule adjustment” means closing an entire factory in the doublespeak of General Motors, or that “advanced downward adjustments” means budget cuts in the doublespeak of Caspar Weinberger, or that “energetic disassembly” means an explosion in a nuclear power plant in the doublespeak of the nuclear power industry?

    The euphemism, an inoffensive or positive word or phrase designed to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality, can at times be doublespeak. But the euphemism can be also a tactful word or phrase; for example, “passed away” functions not just to protect the feelings of another person but also to express our concern for another’s grief. This use of euphemism used to mislead or deceive, however, becomes doublespeak. In 1984, the US State Department announced that in its annual reports on the status of human rights in countries around the world it would no longer use the word “killing.” Instead, it would use the phrase “unlawful or arbitrary deprivation of life”. Thus the State Department avoids discussing government –sanctioned killings in countries that the United States supports and has certified as respecting human rights.

    The Pentagon also avoids unpleasant realities when it refers to bombs and artillery shells which fall on civilian targets as “incontinent ordnance” to slip funding for the neutron bomb unnoticed into an appropriations bill by calling it an “enhanced radiation device.” And in 1971 the CIA gave us the most famous of examples of doublespeak when it used the phrase “eliminate with extreme prejudice” to refer to the execution of a suspected double agent in Vietnam.

  Gobbledygook or bureaucratese is another kind of doublespeak. Such doublespeak is simply a matter of overwhelming the audience with technical, unfamiliar words. When asked why US forced lacked intelligence information on Grenada before they invaded the island in 1983, Admiral Wesley L. McDonald told reporters that “we were micromanaging Grenada intelligence –wise until about that time frame.”

The investigation into the Challenger disaster in 1986 revealed the gobbledygook and bureaucratese used by many involved in the shuttle program. When Jess Moore, NASA’s associate administrator, was asked if the performance of the shuttle program had improved with each launch or if it had remained the same, he answered, “We know more about the envelope we were operating under, and we have been pretty accurately staying in that. And so I would say the performance has not by design drastically improved. I think we have been able to characterize the performance more as a function of our launch experience as opposed to it improving as a function of time.”

In the doublespeak of the military, the 1983 invasion of Grenada was conducted not by the US Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines but by the “Caribbean Peace Keeping Forces.”  But then according to the Pentagon it wasn’t an invasion, it was a “predawn vertical insertion.”

These last examples of doublespeak should make it clear that doublespeak is not the product of careless language or sloppy thinking. Indeed, serious doublespeak is the product of clear thinking and is carefully designed and constructed to appear to communicate but in fact to mislead. Thus, it is not a tax increase but “revenue enhancement”, “tax base broadening”, or “user fees”, so how can you complain about higher taxes? It is not acid rain, it’s just “poorly buffered precipitation”, so don’t worry about all those dead trees. That isn’t the Mafia in Atlantic City, those are just “members of a career-offender cartel”, so do not worry about the influence of organized crime in the city. The Supreme Court Justice wasn’t addicted to the painkilling drug he was taking, it’s just that the drug had simply “established interrelationship with the body, such that if the drug is removed precipitously, there is a reaction”, so do not worry that his decisions might have been influenced by his drug addiction. Serious doublespeak is highly strategic, and it breeds suspicion, cynicism, distrust, and, ultimately, hostility.

 

 

Task 5:

 

Answer the comprehension questions on the text.

 

1. How does the author characterize doublespeak?

2. How does Lutz relate euphemisms and doublespeak?

3. What other kind of doublespeak does Lutz name?

4. What does doublespeak breed?

5. Why, according to Lutz, does “doublespeak continue to spread as the official language of public discourse”?

6. In your opinion, is doublespeak as wide-spread today as it was when Lutz wrote his article? What examples can you provide to back up your opinion?

7. Why does Lutz believe that we must recognize doublespeak for what it is and voice our dissatisfaction with those who use it?

8. What is Lutz’s purpose in this essay – to inform, to express thoughts and feelings or to persuade? What in this essay leads you to this conclusion?

 

Task 6:

 

Copy out from the text the examples of doublespeak that you found most striking.

 

Task 7:

 

Another sphere where Doublespeak is widely used is Legal English. Why do you think lawyers favor Doublespeak?

 

Task 8:

 

The term “doublespeak” was preceded by the word “doublethink” created by George Orwell in his famous novel “1984”.Doublethink is defined as “the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one’s mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.”

Other related terms are “doubletalk” and “newspeak”.

The tendency spread wider and led to the appearance of new kinds of “speaks”. See for justice illustrations from “travelspeak”.

 

What the Brochures Say and What They Mean

 

Deserted beaches - sharks

Fantastic marine paradise – beach

Flourishing tropical garden – jungle

Radio      -   there is no TV

Dancing by moonlight - there is no roof

Games room – half a back of cards

An optional excursion - escape

Fun –filled atmosphere – everything will have too much to drink

Cultural shows – bored local earning, some extra cash

Relaxed, informal décor – plastic table cloths.

 

 

Task 9:

 

Write an article to the newspaper named “Hypocrisy is a political virtue.”

 

Give arguments and counterarguments. Use the style of doublespeak.

 

Unit IX.

             

    

                            Political Correctness.

Task1:

 

What do you know about “political correctness”? Write all the associations that come into your mind when you hear the collocation “political correctness.”

 

Task2:

 

Look at the following definitions of political correctness. Which one do you think is the most appropriate?

 

1. Not using expressions or actions that are seen to insult or upset groups of people according to particular characteristic

2. Using terms more acceptable and less hurtful than direct or outdated language (e.g. “mentally challenged” instead of “mentally retarded”)

3. Avoidance of expressions or actions that can be perceived to exclude or marginalize or insult people who are socially disadvantaged or discriminated against

4. Political correctness (often abbreviated to PC) is a term used to describe language or behavior which is intended, or said to be intended, to provide a minimum of offense, particularly to racial, cultural, or other identity groups.

 

Task3:

 

Political correctness is both a linguistic and social phenomenon. Can you think of social aspects of political correctness and give examples?

 

Task 4:

 

Read the text “Political Correctness” and prepare to do the tasks that follow.

 

 

                   Political Correctness

 

  Political correctness (adjectively, politically correct; both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term used to describe language, ideas, politics, or behavior seen as seeking to minimize offense to racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Conversely, the term politically incorrect is used to refer to language or ideas hat may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy.

    The term itself and its usage are hotly contested. The term “political correctness” is used almost exclusively in a pejorative sense, while “politically incorrect” is used as a self – description, as in the series of “politically incorrect guides,” produced by conservative publisher Regnery.

Some commentators have argued that the term “political correctness” is a straw man invented by conservatives in the 1990s in order to challenge progressive social change, especially with respect to issues of race, religion and gender. Ruth Perry traces the term back to Mao’s little red book. According to Perry, the term was later adopted by the radical left in the 1960s. In the 1990s, because of the term’s association with radical politics and communist censorship, it was used y the political right in the United States to discredit the political left, including liberals and Democrats.

  The term “political correctness” is derived from Marxist – Leninist vocabulary, and was used to describe the appropriate “party line.“ Those people who opposed (or were seen as opposing) the “correct line” were often punished.

  The term was adopted by some proponents of the US New Left. One example cited by Ruth Perry is in 1990, in Toni Cade Barbara’s essay The Black Woman where she stated,”a man cannot be politically correct and a chauvinist too.” This example illustrates the later usage of the term to focus on gender and identity politics rather than on political orthodoxy in general.

Within a few years, however, the term “political correctness” had been

re – appropriated within the New Left as a form of satirical self-critique. According to Debra Shultz, “Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives…used their term ’politically correct’ ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts.” It was in this sense that a popular usage of the phrase in English derived and was employed by Bobby London in his underground comic Merton of the Movement. The alternative term “ideologically sound” followed a similar trajectory and appeared in such works of satire as the comic strips of Bart Dickon.

   In an example typical of use within the left, Ellen Willis records that “in the early ‘80s, when feminists used the term ‘political correctness’ it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti – pornography movement’s efforts to define a ‘feminist sexuality’.”

     The phrase “politically correct” has become popular in other countries as well, including several Scandinavian countries, Portugal, Spain and Latin America, New Zealand, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Russia. Although the dominant use is pejorative, a few authors use the term “political correctness” to describe inclusive language or civility, and thus praise language that they see as “politically correct.”

    According to Andrews, the practice of using “inclusive’ or “neutral” language is based on the idea that “language represents thought, and may even control thought.” One form of this thesis is the Sapir – Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language’s grammatical categories shape its speaker’s ideas and actions, though Andrews holds that more moderate conceptions of the relation between language and thought are sufficient to support the “reasonable deduction” or “ cultural change via linguistic change.” Other work in cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics also indicates that word –choices can have significant “framing effects” on the perceptions, memories, and attitudes of speakers and hearers. The relevant empirical question is whether these efforts extend to “sexist language” promoting sexist thought.

    What critics call political correctness is in some cases defended by advocates as attempt to use non – offensive language? The goal of changing language and terminology consists of several points, including:

*Certain people have their rights, opportunities, or freedoms restricted due to their categorization as members of a group with a derogatory stereotype.

*This categorization is largely implicit and unconscious, and is facilitated by the easy availability of labeling terminology

*By making the labeling terminology problematic, people are made to think consciously about how they describe someone.

*Once labeling is a conscious activity, individual merits of a person, rather than their perceived membership in a group, become more apparent

    The situation is complicated by the fact that members of identity groups sometimes embrace terms that others seek to change. For example, deaf culture has always considered the label “Deaf” as an affirming statement of group membership and not insulting or disparaging in any way. The term now often substituted for the term “deaf,” hearing –impaired, was developed to include people with hearing loss due to aging, accidents, and other causes. While more accurate for those uses,  the term “hearing – impaired” is considered highly derogatory for many deaf people. The term “Hard of Hearing,” however, is considered an acceptable descriptive term for a limited – to non – hearing person.

  A further issue is that terms selected by identity group as more acceptable descriptors will then pass into common use, including use by people whose attitudes are those formerly associated with words which the new terms were designed to supersede. The new terms thus become devalued, and a further set of expressions must be coined. This can give rise to lengthy progressions such as “negro,” ”colored,”: black,” “African – American.”

  Critics argue that political correctness implies censorship and endangers free speech by limiting what is in the public discourse, especially in universities and political forums. University of Pennsylvania professor Ala Charles Kors and a lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate connect political correctness to the ideas of Marxist Herbert Marcuse, in particular his claim that liberal ideas of free speech were in fact repressive. They see this “Marcusean logic” as being at the basis of hundreds of college speech codes formulated on American university campus.

   Others contend that political correct terms are awkward, euphemistic substitutes for original stark language. They also draw comparisons to George Orwell’s Newspeak.

   Several political figures claim that political correctness is a serious movement aiming to change the nature of Western society. Thus, Peter Hitchens wrote in his book The Abolition of Britain, “What Americans describe with casual phrase political correctness is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate the British Isles since the Reformation.”Lind and Buchanan have characterized PC as a technique originated by the Frankfurt School. According to Lind and Buchanan, the work of the Frankfurt School aimed at undermining western values by influencing popular culture through Cultural Marxism. Buchanan says in his book The Death of the West: “Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a regime to punish dissent and to   stigmatize   social heresy as the Inquisition punished religious heresy.”

   Some conservative critics of political correctness argue that it is a form of coercion rooted in the assumption that in a political context, power refers to dominion of some men over others, or the human control of human life; by this argument, ultimately, it means force or compulsion. This argument holds that correctness in this context is subjective, and corresponds to the sponsored view of the government, minority, or special interest group that these conservative critics oppose. They claim that by silencing contradiction, their opponents entrench their views as orthodox, and eventually cause it to be accepted as true, as freedom of thought requires the ability to choose between more than one viewpoints. Some conservatives refer to political correctness as “The Scourge of Our Times.”

      Opponents of mainstream scientific views on evolution, global warming, passive smoking, AIDS and other issues have claimed that political correctness is responsible for the future of their views to get a fair hearing.

       Allegation of political correctness has been directed against the political rights.

      During the run – up to the invasion of Iraq, several weeks after their Grammy success the country band the Dixie Chicks performed in concert in London on March 10, 2003, at the Shepherd’s  Bush Empire theatre. During this concert, the band gave a monologue to introduce their song Travelin’ Soldier, during which Natalie Maines, a Texas native, was quoted by The Guardian as saying, “Just so you know, we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.” Though this is the official circulation of the comment, the full text of the statement Natalie Maines made was as follows:” Just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all. We do not want this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas.”

      The resulting backlash against the band was described by columnist Don Williams as an example of enforcing politically correct views from the right. Williams wrote, “The ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there is a war on. Then you’d better watch what you say. “Williams noted that Ann Coulter and Bill O’Reilly called it treason.

   Similar examples include attempts to rename French fries as Freedom Fries and to boycott French wine retaliation for France’s decision to not support the U.S. invasion of Iraq.

                                                     (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

 

 

Task5:

 

Give answers to the comprehension questions on the text.

 

1. What does the term “political correctness” mean?

2. How is the term “political incorrect” used to refer to?

3. Where is the term derived from?

4. What is the citation by Ruth Berry given in the article?

5. How are the terms “politically correct” and “ideologically sound” related?

6. Which other countries, besides the United States, has the   term become popular in?

7. What is the essence of Sapir – Whorf hypothesis?

8. How do cognitive linguists view political correctness?

9. How do critics of political correctness argue in favor of their views?

10. What is the conservatives’ view on political correctness?

11.What did Don Williams say about “political correctness”?

 

Task6:

Look at the list of politically correct terms and their common language equivalents below.

 

Politically Correct (PC) Terms:

 

A Criminal    -          unsavory character

A Crook     -          morally (ethically) challenged

Alcoholic   -          anti-sobriety activist

An Immigrant -          a newcomer

Assassination -           involuntary term limitation

Bald             -         comb –free

Blind                                   visually challenged

Broken down Automobile       mechanically challenged

Broken Home                     dysfunctional family

Cheating                              academic dishonesty

China                                    porcelain

Chronically Late                  temporarily challenged

Computer Illiterate                technologically challenged

Crime Rate                            street activity index

Dead                                      biologically challenged

Deaf                                       visually oriented

Dish Washer                           utensil sanitizer

Dishonest                               ethically disoriented

Dorm                                       residence hall

Drug Addict                            chemically challenged

Earthquake                              geological correction

Fat                                           horizontally gifted

Fat                                            person of substance

Gang                                         young group

Garbage Man                           sanitation engineer

Gas Station Attendant             petroleum transfer technician

 Handicapped                           differently abled, handy – capable

Homeless                                  outdoor urban dweller

Housewife                                domestic engineer

Incompetent                             differently qualified

Insane People                            mental explorers

Insult                                          emotional rape

Large Nose                                 nasally gifted

Lazy                                            motivationally dispossessed

Mankind                                      humankind

Not with somebody at the moment   romantically challenged

Old                                              chronologically gifted

Old Person/Elderly                     gerontologically advanced

Old Person/Elderly                    senior citizens

Plagiarism                                  previously owned prose

Policeman, Policewoman           law enforcement officer

Poor                                            monetarily challenged

Poor                                                  economically unprepared

Prisoner                                        client of the correctional system

Racist                                           genetically discriminating

Rudeness                                      tact avoidance

Shoplifter                                     cost –of – living adjustment specialist

Stupid                                          differently –brained

Thin                                             horizontally challenged

Ugly                                             facially challenged

White American                               racially challenged

Wrong                                           differently logical

 

Task 7:

 

Make up a politically correct story or translate a well – known story into a politically –correct one using the expressions from Task6.

 

Task 8:

 

Nowadays we do not use the term “cleaner” and prefer “a cleaning lady” to this. Why do you think people do this? Why do not we say, for instance, “a doctor lady” (mind that “a lady doctor” would mean something very different).

 

How do you understand the term “sexism”? Think of both linguistic and social aspects.

 

Task 9:

 

Read an article from David Crystal’s “The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language” and learn more about sexism in language and gender issues in general

 

                 Gender Issues

 

Some of the most important linguistic changes affecting English since the 1960s have arisen from the way society has come to look differently at the practice and consequences of sexism. There is now a widespread awareness which was lacking a generation ago, of the way in which language covertly displays social attitude towards men and women. The criticism have been mainly directed at the biases built into English vocabulary and grammar which reflect traditional male – oriented views of the world, and which have been interpreted as reinforcing the low status of women in society. All of the main European languages have been affected, but English more than most, because of the early impact of the feminist movement in the U.S.A.

  In vocabulary, attention has been focused on the replacement of “make” words with a genetic meaning by neutral items – chairman, for example, becoming chair or chairperson, or salesman becoming sales assistant. In certain cases, such as job descriptions, the use of sexually neutral   language has become a legal requirement. There is continuing debate between extremists and moderates as to how far such revisions should go – whether they should affect traditional idioms such as man in street and Neanderthal Man, or apply to parts of words where the male meaning of man is no longer dominant, such as man-handle. The vocabulary of marital status has also been affected – notably in the introduction of MS as a neutral alternative to Miss or Mrs.

  In grammar, the focus has been on the lack of sex – neutral singular pronoun in English – a gap which becomes a problem after sex – neutral nouns (such as student) or indefinite pronouns (such as somebody).The difficulty can be seen in the following sentences, where the blanks would traditionally be filled by the pronoun he or his.

If a student loses (….) key, (….) should report the loss to the bursar.

  To avoid the male bias, various alternatives have been suggested, but all have their critics. He or she or she or he is sometimes used, but this is often felt to be stylistically awkward. In writing, forms such (s)he can be convenient, but this device does not help with his or him. In informal speech, they is widely spread after such words as anyone, but this usage attracts criticism from those who feel that a plural word should not be made to refer back to a singular one. Many writers therefore choose to recast their sentence structure to avoid the problem, for example by turning the singular noun into a plural (If students lose their key….). A radical solution, so far unsuccessful, is to invent a completely new pronoun to act as a neutral third person.

                   (David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 1995)       

 

 Task 10:

 

Give the summery of the article. Be sure to name the sexist terms and their neutral equivalents.

 

Task 11:

 

See some illustrations of old – fashioned and modern non – sexist languages.

 

Old –fashioned sexist language                      Modern non-sexist language

 

“What does he want?”                                      “What do they want?”

A child needs to feel that he is liked                A child needs to feel that he  by his friends                                           is liked by  friends.                                                   Man /mankind are polluting the world.       People are /Humanity is /Humankind is

Man is not the only animal that uses tools.     Human beings/Humans are                                                                           

                                                                          not  the only animals……..

This is the largest man – made lake in Europe. This is the largest artificial                   

                                                                            lake in Europe.                                                                                                                                 

The teacher must not be late for his classes.    Teachers must not be late                

                                                                           for their classes.

A mother should never leave a baby alone in  Parents should never leave

     the house.                                                     babies alone in the

 He might hurt himself.                              house.  They might hurt

                                                                                    themselves.                                                                                            

 

Male words are almost always put before

female words in common combinations.

men and women; brothers and sisters;

husbands and wives; his and her; him and her

 

a) Ted and Angela are husband and wife.             

b) Angela and Tod are wife and husband.

a) I have three girls and two men working  

b) I have three women and two men working

for me.                                                             .

a) Mr. Lewis and Miss Masters.                              

b) Ms. Masters and Mr. Lewis

Task12:

 

Say what you think of sexist and non – sexist languages. Which one is your preference?

 

Task13:

 Render the article in English

 

 

            Роль женщины в политической жизни Финляндии.

Модель государства всеобщего благосостояния ставит своей целью достичь социального равенства за счет обеспечения граждан обширными социальными правами – в дополнение к правам политическим и гражданским. Эти права в Скандинавских странах институционализированы на более высоком уровне и с большим единообразием, чем где-либо. Социальные права относятся к компетенции социального обеспечения и социальных служб - это касается, к примеру, здравоохранения, образования, детских садов. Для скандинавской модели государства всеобщего благосостояния, по сравнению, например, с английским либо американским “либеральным” обществом, важна роль государства как гаранта социальной защиты. Социальные права понимаются как основное средство достижения цели “равных жизненных шансов”. Равные жизненные шансы соотносятся с проблемой уничтожения классового неравенства и, что очень важно, гендерного неравенства за счет предоставления гражданам универсальных и высококвалифицированных услуг по социальному обеспечению.

Формирование общества всеобщего благосостояния стало фактором способствующим развитию «женского проекта» в Финляндии. Целью «проекта» стало всестороннее развитие женского потенция во всех областях общественной жизни страны. В 60-х годах ХХ века в Финляндии развернулась острая  дискуссия о гендерных ролях в обществе. В ходе обсуждений проявилась «северная гендерная модель», направленная на отказ зависимости женщин от мужей, повышение уровня женского образования, широкое распространение работа женщин вне дома.

В этот период финское государство стало «лучшим другом женщины», гарантом политического успеха реформ в обществе. В положении женщины и семьи произошли большие изменения. Женщины стали активно участвовать в трудовой жизни, что в свою очередь повысило участие женщин в политике, в управлении, в работе вузов и в СМИ. На эти годы приходится и формирование современной модель роли женщины в обществе. Идеалом такой роли стало возможность сочетать семью и работу. Со временем это привело к реализации принципов гендерного равноправия в общественных институтах, в политических программах и социальных реформах. Однако, несмотря на определенный прогресс, в оплате труда все еще не достигнуто полного гендерного равноправия.

        

В конце 90-х годов ХХ века в Финляндии был принят закон о половых квотах при назначениях на выборные должности в муниципальных органах власти. После избирательной реформы 1906 года это была самая значительная реформа, повлиявшая на участие женщин в общественных делах.

В настоящий момент 37% финского парламента (Eduskunta) составляют женщины. В муниципальных парламентах женское представительство - 34%. Из восемнадцати министерских постов женщины занимают семь. В Европарламенте 44% из общего числа наших представителей составляют женщины. Кроме того, в Европейском центральном банке Финляндию также представляет женщина (Сиркка Хэмэлэйнен – Sirkka Hämäläinen). Двое из трёх спикеров парламента – женщины (Риитта Уосукайнен (Riitta Uosukainen) и Сиркка-Лииза Антила (Sirkka-Liisa Anttila). В 2000 г., в первый раз раз за всю историю Финляндии, на пост президента была избрана женщина - Тарья Халонен (Tarja Halonen). Всё это на фоне других стран мира в самом деле выглядит неплохо.

В целом женщины участвуют в политике столь же активно, сколь и мужчины. Одна из причин, по которой женщинам лишь сравнительно недавно удалось пробиться к высоким постам в политике и экономике, кроется в так называемых “братских сетях” (“brotherhood-networks”). Эти неформальные сети мужчин, обладающих властью, традиционно складывались в саунах (ну как же иначе, ведь мы же финны!), где обсуждались важные политические вопросы и принимались решения. Женщины давно жаловались по поводу этих сетей “мужских уз” и братства. Мужские сети и связанная с ними культура сауны дискриминируют женщин, оставляя последних за бортом сферы влияния и доступа к информации. Несмотря на то, что в Финляндии существует формальное гендерное равенство, подобные братские сети являются хорошим примером неуловимых неформальных гендерных практик, конструирующих и воспроизводящих мужское доминирование и гендерное неравенство. Однако со стороны женщин в качестве противодействия последовало учреждение их собственных, “сестринских сетей” с целью повышения статуса женщин в обществе.

Ярким примером того, как различаются репрезентации женщин и мужчин – политиков в средствах массовой информации, является ситуация с действующим президентом страны Тарьей Халонен. Когда президент Халонен совершала свой первый государственный визит в Швецию, средства массовой информации увлеченно обсуждали ее внешность, резко критикуя манеру одеваться, сумочку, отсутствие подходящей к туалету шляпки и т.п. Любопытно, что самая острая критика раздавалась, в том числе со страниц финских женских журналов. В любом случае реальная политическая значимость визита была оттеснена на второй план этой “гардеробной дискуссией”. Очевидно, что вряд ли нечто подобное могло произойти при совершении государственного визита президентом – мужчиной.

У женских движений в Финляндии давние традиции. Первые женские организации возникли уже в конце девятнадцатого столетия. Они были связаны с более широким национально-романтическим и просветительским движением. Как считает Ирма Сулкунен, на развитие женских организаций в Финляндии повлияло “социальное материнство”, т. е., подчёркивание женской материнской роли, подразумевающей заботу о ближних. Даже будучи исключенными из политических властных структур, в которых доминировали мужчины, женщины достаточно рано стали играть активную роль в становлении гражданского общества, создавая свои организации со своими собственными задачами и сферами деятельности. Женская гражданская активность сыграла решающую роль в продвижении реформ социальной политики в начале и середине 1960-х гг.

С 1970-х гг. и далее женские организации в Финляндии сосредоточились на построении государства всеобщего благосостояния, открывая пути для женщин на рынок труда и в политические структуры и предоставляя возможности совмещения работы и семьи. В 1990-х и 2000 году женские организации уделяли особое внимание развитию женских сетей и интернационализации.

Наиболее выдающимися женскими организациями в Финляндии на сегодняшний день являются, к примеру, Союз женщин (учрежденный еще в 1892 г.) и Национальный совет женщин Финляндии. Союз женщин – откровенно феминистская организация, в которой насчитывается около тысячи членов. Союз женщин функционирует как объединение множества независимых женских групп на уровне “корней травы”. Он организует, курсы в форме открытых лекций по феминизму и положению женщин в обществе и поддерживает кризисный центр, который обеспечивает правовую и психологическую поддержку для женщин, переживших домашнее либо сексуальное насилие. В состав Союза женщин входят различные рабочие группы, такие, как “Молодые феминистки”, “Мамы – феминистки”“ и “Женщины за мир”.

                                                                                                              (С.Н.Погодин)

 

Task14:

 

Read and render the text «Political Correctness в действии»

         

 

 

                      Political Correctness в действии

 

    Сегодня мы поговорим о «политкорректности» в действии: в чём она проявляется, как подбирают новые способы языкового выражения взамен тех, что задевают чувства и достоинства индивидуума, ущемляют его человеческие права привычной языковой бестактностью и/или прямолинейностью в отношении расовой и половой принадлежности, возраста, состояния здоровья,  социального статуса, внешнего вида и т.п.

  Движение за ПК началось с африканских пользователей английским языком, возмутившихся негативными коннотациями метафорики слова black (чёрный).Оно немедленно и очень активно было подхвачено феминистскими движениями, боровшимися за права женщин в современном обществе. Вот примеры тех изменений, которым подвергла тенденция к ПК «расистские» слова и словосочетания:

Negro>colored>black>African American>Afro-American

(негр>цветной>чёрный>африканский американец>афроамериканец)

Red Indians > Native Americans

(краснокожие индейцы, > коренные американцы)

    Феминистские движения одержали крупные победы на разных уровнях языка и практически во всех вариантах английского языка, начавшись в американском. Так, обращение Ms. по аналогии с Mr. не дискриминирует женщину, поскольку не определяет её как замужнюю(Mrs.) или незамужнюю (Miss).Оно успешно внедрилось в официальный английский, и прокладывает дорогу в разговорный.

   «Сексистские» морфемы, указывающие на половую принадлежность человека, вроде суффикса -man, вытесняются из языка вместе со словами, в которые они имели неосторожность войти. Взамен появляются новые, определяющие человека безотносительно к полу.

Chairman > chairperson (председатель)

Spokesman>spokesperson (делегат)

Cameraman >camera operator (оператор)

Foreman > supervisor (начальник)

Fireman >fire fighter (пожарник)

Postman > mail carrier (почтальон)

Businessman > business lady (бизнесмен> бизнес – леди)

Stewardess > flight attendant (стюардесса)

Headmistress > head teacher (директриса)

Не обходится без вариантов поистине курьезных. Так, слово woman можно увидеть написанным как womyn или wimmin – лишь бы только избежать ассоциаций с ненавистным «мужским» суффиксом.

   Традиционное употребление местоимений мужского рода (his/ him) в тех случаях, когда пол существительного не указан или неизвестен, практически уже вытеснено новыми способами языкового выражения – или обязательным упоминанием his /her или множественным their: Everyone must do his duty > Everyone must do his/her duty (Everyone must do their duty).

Всё чаще в текстах встречается написание s/he вместо традиционного   написания he/she. Ladies, как говорится, first!     

 

Task 15:

 

 Put ten comprehensive questions to the text. Ask your peers to answer them.

 

Task 16:

 

As we have touched on the problem of gender issues in language, read the following examples of “The Secret Language of Women”