2018-02-14
3818The Ph sys of Eng is a systemic combination of all the 4 components of the sound matter, which constitute(составлять) the material forms of all the morphemes, words, phrases and sentences and serve(служит) a speaker of the lang to express his thoughts, feelings, emotions.
The first component of the Ph structure of English is the sys of its segmental phonemes existing in the material form of their allophones constituted by the spectral, fundamental frequency(частота), force and temporal(временный) components of the sound matter of lang in various combinations. The systemic character of the phonemic component is reflected in various classifications of its phonemes in which the letters are divided first into 2 fundamental sound types – vowels and consonants – with further subdivision of each sound type according to the principles of vowel and cons classifications.
The systemic character of the phonemic component is reflected(отражается) in various classifications of its phonemes in which the letters are divided into 2 fundamental sound types – vowels and consonants.
The combinations of allophones are also systemic in character, the allophones of the phoneme occur(происходят) only in definite positions, e.g. the E sounds [u, h] never occur at the beginning of a word, whereas the sounds [эе, h] never occur at the end of E word. There is not a single Russian word, which begins with the vowel [ы].
A typical combination of cons sounds that may occur at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word is called a cons cluster,(группа) the combination of vowels is sometimes referred(относятся) to as a vowel chain. Clusters and chains also occur in definite(назначеной) positions. Thus, the E clusters – [tl,dl] never occur at the beginning of words, whereas the similar Rus clusters [Тл,дл] never occur at the end of words, e.g. saddle, длань.
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the Ph sys of E has 3 aspects:
1) The sys of its phonemes as discreet isolated units which may occur in speech as isolated sounds constituting mono-phonemic words and sometimes even sentences;
2) the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes
3) the methods of joining speech sounds together or the methods of effecting VC, CV, CC, VV transitions.
The second component is the syllabic structure of words. The syllabic structure of words has 2 aspects: syllable formation and syllable division (деление) Lang-s may differ from one another both in syllable formation and syl division. Differences in syl formation involve differences in the compacity (соединение) of speech sounds to form syl in different positions. E.g. the cons [m] is syll in the E word rythm, whereas the similar Rus sound [м] is nonsyllabic in the same position in the Rus equivalent of the same word ритм.
Differences in syllabic division involve differences in the position of the point of syllable division and in the types of the resulting syllables mainly open and closed, e.g. [mani] in which the 1 syllable is closed and [мани] in which the 1 syll is pen.
In E differences in syl division may perform a distinctive function.
The third and the forth components of the Ph system of English is the acсentual structure of its words as items of vocabulary.
The accentual structure of words has 3 aspects:
1.the physical nature of word accent
2.the position of the accent in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words.
3.the degrees of word accent.
The 4th component is the intonational structure of sentences in it, intonation being understood in the broad sense.
4 The Articulatory and Acoustic aspects of the English speech sounds
The articulation of every speech sound and the transition(переход) from the articulation of 1 sound to the articulation of another are effected and controlled by the action of the muscles situated in the organs of speech involved. These muscles are activated by impulses sent from the brain. Some linguists such as Щерба and his follower Матусевич associate the articulatory aspect of speech sounds with their biological aspect. On the one hand, the human brain is the original source of speech, and on the other, it perceive(воспринятые) speech sounds coming from the external(внешний) world.
Speech is impossible without these 4 mechanisms: the power mechanism; the vibrator mech; the resonator mech; the obstructer(припятствие) mech
1) The function of the power mechanism consists in the supply(снабжение) of energy in the form of air pressure and in regulating the force of the air stream. The power mechanicm includes the following organs of respiration: 1 the diaphragm; 2 the lungs; 3 the bronchi; 4 the windpipe(дыхательное горло); 5 the glottis – the opening between the vocal chords; 6 the larynx(гортань); 7 the mouth cavity(впадина); 8 the nasal cavity.
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§ 2) The air stream provided by the lungs undergoes import modifications in the upper stages of the respiratory tract. First of all it passes through sets into action vibrator mech. Which is posed (находится) in the larynx. As the air is exhaled(выдыхать) from the lungs it is fed under pressure into the larynx through the wind pipe. In addition to constituting the bases of the spectral and pitch components, the vocal cords(связки) as part of the vibration mechanism participate(учавствуют) in forming its intensity component as well.
§ 3) The air stream heading past through the larynx is now subject to further modification according to the shape assumed(принимать) by the super-glottal cavities of the pharynx and mouth and according to weather the nasal cavity is brought into action or not. So the resonator mechanism consists of the pharynx, the larynx, and the nasal cavity.
§ 4) The obstructer(припятствие) mechanic consists of the tongue, the lips, the teeth, the soft palate(небо) with the uvula(язычок), the hard palate, the alveolar ridge.
§ Acoustic aspect of speech sounds.
§ Speech sounds have a number of physical properties. The first of them is frequency(частота) (the number of vibrations per sec). The vocal cords vibrate along the whole of their length, producing fundamental frequency, and all the tones. When the vibrations produced by the vocal cords are regular they produce musical tone. When they are irregular – noise is produced. When tone prevails(приобладает) over noise, sonorants are produced. When noise prevails over tone, voiced cons-s are produced.
§ Perception of the pitch of a speech sound depends upon the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords. The higher the pitch of vibrations, the higher the pitch level. A male voice may have an average pitch level of about 100 and 150 cycles per sec, and a female – 240 cycles per sec.
§ The frequency of sound depend on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as length, tension(напряжение).
§ The second physical property of sound is intensity(интенсивность, мощьность). The greater the amplitude of vibration, the greater the intensity of a sound; the greater the pressure on the ear drums, the lauder the sound.Any sound has duration, it is its length of time during which the same vibratory motion(движение) are maintained(сохранено).
§ 5 The main principles of articulatory classifications of vowels
The first linguist who tried to describe and classify vowels for all languages was D. Jones. He devised the system of 8 Cardinal Vowels. The basis of the system is physiological.. Cardinal vowel –I corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as closed as possible to the palate(небо). The gradual(постепенное) lowering of the tongue to the back lowest position gives another point for cardinal vowel –a:. The lowest front position of the tongue gives the point for cardinal vowel –а. The upper back limit(предел) for the tongue position gives the point for cardinal –u. These positions for Cardinal vowels were copied from X-ray photographs. The tongue positions between these points were X-rayed and the equidistant(равноудаленными)
classification of vowels according to the following principles: 1) stability of articulation; 2) tongue position; 3) lip position; 4) character of the vowel end; 5) length; 6) tenseness(напряженность). Vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs (the tongue position is stable); b) diphthongs (it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another); c) diphthongoids (an intermediate(промежуточный) case, when the change in the position is fairly weak). There are two vowels in English [i:, u:] that may have a diphthongal glide where they have full length (be, do), and the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger.
3.Another feature of English vowels is lip position. Traditionally three lip
positions are distinguished, that is spread, neutral, rounded. Lip rounding takes
place rather due to physiological reasons than to any other. Any back vowel in
English is produced with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and
depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue; the higher it is raised the
more rounded the lips are.
4. Character of the vowel end. This quality depends on the kind of the
articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. This transition (VC) is very
closed in English unlike Russian. As a result all English short vowels are checked
when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following
consonants (+ voiceless - voiced - sonorant -).
5. Vowel like any sound has physical duration. When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot help being influenced by one another. Duration of a vowel depends on the following factors: 1) its own length; 2) the accent of the
syllable in which it occurs; 3) phonetic context; 4) the position in a rhythmic structure; 5) the position in a tone group; 6) the position in an utterance; 7) the tempo of the whole utterance; 8) the type of pronunciation.
There is one more articulatory characteristic that needs our attention, namely tenseness. It characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of vowel production. Special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense while historically short are lax.
6 Consonants are known to have voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only. Consonants are characterized by a complete, partial or intermittent(временный) blockage of the air passage. Russian phoneticians classify consonants according to the following principles: i) degree of noise; ii) place of articulation; iii) manner of articulation; iv) position of the soft palate; v) force of articulation.
(I) There are few ways of seeing situation concerning the classification of English consonants. According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance should be given to the type of obstruction(приграда) and the manner of production noise. On this ground he distinguishes(различия) two large classes:
a) Occlusive(глухой,закрытый) in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;
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b) Constrictive(ограниченный), in the production of which an incomplete(недостаточный) obstruction is
formed. Each of two classless is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants.
