2018-02-14
1696
As a network of relationships among independent political units, the state system was born with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. Thereafter, European rulers refused to recognize the authority of the Roman Catholic church, replacing the previous system of papal governance with geographically and politically separate states that recognized no authority above them. The newly independent states were all given the same legal rights: territory under their sole control, the freedom to conduct foreign relations and negotiate treaties with other states, and the authority to establish whatever form of government they chose. The concept of state sovereignty – that no one is above the state — captures these legal rights.
The Westphalian system still colors every dimension of world politics, and provides the terminology used to describe the primary units in international affairs. Although the term "nation-state" is often confusingly used interchangeably with "state" and "nation," technically the three are different. A state is a legal entity that enjoys a permanent population, a well-defined territory, and a government capable of exercising sovereignty. A nation is a collection of people who, on the basis of ethnic, linguistic, or cultural affinity, perceive themselves to be members of the same group. Thus the term nation-state implies a convergence between territorial states and the psychological identification of people within them. However, in employing this familiar terminology, we should exercise caution because this condition is relatively rare; there are few independent states comprised of a single nationality. Most states are populated by many nations, and some nations are not states. These "nonstate nations" are ethnic groups, such as Native American tribes in the United States, Sikhs in India, or Basques in Spain, composed of people without sovereign power over the territory in which they live.
When we speak generically about foreign policy and the decision-making processes that produce it, we mean the goals that officials representing states seek abroad, the values that underlie those goals, and the means or instruments used to pursue them. To begin our inquiry into how states make foreign policy choices, we first consider the setting for their choices and the circumstances outside national borders that make such choices necessary.
Geopolitics
One of the most important influences on a state’s foreign policy behavior is its location and physical terrain. The presence of natural frontiers, for example, may profoundly guide policymakers’ choices. Consider the United States, which has prospered because vast oceans separate it from Europe and Asia. This advantage, combined with the absence of militarily powerful neighbors permitted the United States to develop into an industrial giant and at times to practice safely an isolationist foreign policy for over 150 years. Consider also mountainous Switzerland, whose topography and geostrategic position have made neutrality a compelling foreign policy posture.
Similarly, maintaining autonomy from continental politics has been an en-during theme in the foreign policy of Great Britain, an island country whose physical separation from Europe served historically as a buffer separating it from entanglement in major-power disputes on the continent. Preserving this protective shield has been a priority for Britain and helps to explain why the British government in the early 1990s resisted greater integration of its economy into the European Union.
Most countries are not insular, however; they have many states on their borders, denying them the option of noninvolvement in world affairs. Germany, which sits in the geographic centre of Europe, historically has found its domestic political system and foreign policy preferences profoundly affected by its geostrategic position. In the 20th century alone, even before the unification of East and West, Germany had "undergone five radical changes in political personality – from Wilhelm II’s empire to the Weimar Republic, from Hitler’s Reich of the Thousand Years to its two postwar successors, the Federal Republic of Germany … and the German Democratic Republic" (Joffe).
In much the same way, extended frontiers with the former Soviet Union shaped the foreign policies of China and Finland. Finland’s neutrality in the Cold War helped ensure its survival in the face of a powerful and threatening neighbour. China, on the other hand, has long regarded its relationship with the now defunct Soviet Union as unequal, and in the late 1960s the two communist giants clashed militarily as the Chinese sought to rectify past injustices. The "unequal treaties" between China and outside powers, which encapsulate these perceived injustices, resulted in part from China’s size and location, which made it an easy target for the great powers that had carved it into spheres of influence in previous centuries.
Like China, the Latin American countries have found themselves geographically near a much stronger power, the United States, whose capabilities are in part a function of geophysical resources. Latin America has long been the object of studied interest and frequent intervention by the giant to the north. South America’s economic dependence on the United States provoked a bitter response for many decades, because those countries felt they could not compete on an equal footing with the U.S. economic and military powerhouse. Their foreign policy of resistance to so-called Yankee imperialism was driven by their disadvantaged circumstances. Understandably, many other poor Global South countries without many resources also see that, given their geoeconomic condition, their foreign policy goals should be geared to opposing imperialism – what Egypt’s President Nasser defined as "the subjugation of small nations to the interests of the big ones."
History is replete with other examples of geography’s influence on states’ foreign policy goals, which is why geopolitical theories are useful.
The geopolitics school of realist thought and political geography generally stress the influence of geographic factors on state power and international conduct. Illustrative of early geopolitical thinking is Alfred Thayer Mahan’s (1890) „The Influence of Sea Power in History“, which maintained that control of the seas shaped national power. Thus states with extensive coastlines and ports enjoyed a competitive advantage. Later geopoliticians, such as Sir Halford Mackinder (1919) and Nicholas Spykman (1944), stressed that not only location but also topography, size (territory and population), climate, and distance between states are powerful determinants of the foreign policies of individual countries. The underlying principle behind the geopolitical perspective is self-evident: Leaders’ perceptions of available foreign policy options are influenced by the geopolitical circumstances that define their states’ place on the world stage.
Geopolitics is only one aspect of the global environment that may influence foreign policy. We will also discuss additional global factors. In the following unit we will comment briefly on three internal attributes of states that influence their foreign policies: military capabilities, economic characteristics, and type of government.
Exercises:
1 Answer the following questions:
1. When and where was the state system born?
2. What changed in the state sovereignty thereafter?
3. What do the terms “state“ and “nation“ mean?
4. What is the relationship between a state and a nation?
5. What is meant by “foreign policy“?
6. What influences a state’s foreign policy behavior? Give examples.
7. Which states, according to geopoliticians, could enjoy a competitive advantage?
8. What other factors can influence a state’s foreign policy behavior?
2 Give Russian equivalents for the following word-combinations:
a net of relationship, papal governance, sole control, to conduct foreign relations, dimension of world politics, legal entity, to exercise sovereignty, ethnic affinity, to imply convergence, decision-making process, setting for the choice, physical terrain, militarily powerful neighbours, at times, isolationist foreign policy, compelling foreign policy posture, enduring theme, major-power disputes, protective shield, to deny the option, noninvolvement in world affairs, extended frontiers, to shape the foreign policy,to ensure survival, to clash militarily, to compete on an equal footing, military powerhouse, to gear to opposing imperialism, to enjoy an advantage, powerful determinant, underlying principle.
3 Give English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:
признавать власть, взаимозаменяемо, постоянное население, использовать терминологию, проявлять осторожность, относительно редкий, состоящий из кого-либо (2 варианта), говорить в общем, лежать в основе целей, преследовать цели, естественные границы, промышленный гигант, служить буфером, островное государство, подвергнуться изменениям, послевоенные преемники, подобным образом, перед лицом мощного соседа, считать отношения неравными, в конце 60-х гг., пытаться исправить несправедливость, частое вмешательство, многие 10-летия, политика сопротивления, покорение малых народов интересам больших наций, быть полным чего-либо, доступный выбор.
4 Make up nouns from the following verbs and adjectives using suffixes:
to emerge, to relate, to rule, to govern, to negotiate, to confuse, to collect, to perceive, to converge, to identify, to employ, to decide, to represent, to locate, to separate, to combine, to develop, to isolate, to entangle, to preserve, to protect, to resist, to integrate, to involve, to prefer, to unify, to survive, to rectify, to intervene, to depend, to provoke, to respond, to compete, to subjugate, to extend, to determine, to define;
free, sovereign, present, absent, neutral, autonomous, cautious, equal, personal, just, capable, illustrative.
5 Give as many synonyms as possible to the following words:
to refuse, to replace, to establish, to employ, to consider, to prosper, to permit, to affect, to ensure, to define, to shape;
ruler, freedom, treaty, goal, border, option, threat, advantage;
modern, independent, legal, permanent, different, enduring, radical, former, powerful, replete.
6 Give antonyms adding negative affixes if necessary:
modern, separate, primary, different, legal, free, capable, familiar, rare, natural, important, foreign, powerful, safe, equal, just, available, necessary, profound, optional.
7 Explain the meaning of the following adverbs and make up sentences with them:
newly, confusingly, interchangeably, relatively, generically, profoundly, similarly, understandably.
8 Insert prepositions where necessary:
1. European rulers refused to recognize the authority... the Roman Catholic Church, replacing the previous system... papal governance... geographically and politically separate states that recognized... no authority... them.
2. Leaders’ perception... available foreign policy options are influenced... the geopolitical circumstances that define their states’ place... the world stage.
3. This advantage, combined... the absence... militarily powerful neighbours permitted the United States to develop... an industrial giant and... times to practice safely... an isolationist foreign policy...... 150 years.
4. The term “nation-state“ implies a convergence... territorial states and the psychological identification... people... them.
5. Latin America has long been the object... studied interest and frequent intervention... the giant... the north.
6. Finland’s neutrality... the Cold War helped ensure... its survival... the face... a powerful and threatening neighbour.
7. The “nonstate nations“ are ethnic groups, composed … people... sovereign power... the territory... which they live.
8. Their foreign policy... resistance... so-called Yankee imperialism was driven... their disadvantaged circumstances.
9. History is replete... other examples... geography’s influence... states’ foreign policy goals.
10. The “unequal treaties“... China and outside powers resultied... part... China’s size and location, which made it an easy target... the great powers, that had carved it... spheres... influence.. previous centures.
9 Translate from Russian into English:
1. В результате Вестфальского мира европейские правители отвергли власть Римской Католической церкви и систему папского правления, получив законное право установления любой формы правительства.
2. Для описания первичных единиц правления используются такие термины, как «государство» и «нация», однако мы должны быть осторожными в их употреблении, так как они не всегда взаимозаменяемы.
3. Говоря о внешней политике и механизме принятия ее решений, политики в первую очередь рассматривают цели, которые они хотят достичь за границей, ценности, которые лежат в основе их достижения, и средства для их достижения.
4. Как считают геополитики, именно местоположение страны, ее границы влияют на стиль внешней политики государства и на выбор политических лидеров.
5. Благодаря своему островному положению, Великобритания всегда имела возможность не вмешиваться в запутанные отношения и спорные моменты на континенте.
6. Многие страны, граничащие с экономически мощными державами, подвергаются вторжениям, так как они не могут состязаться с ними на равных условиях.
7. По мнению геополитиков, еще одним фактором, который влияет на поведение стран на международной арене, является контроль над морями, то есть страны с протяженной береговой линией и многочисленными портами имеют преимущество.
8. При выборе уместной внешней политики лидеры стран принимают во внимание не только местоположение страны, но и топографию, размеры страны и ее населения, климат, расстояние между странами.
10 Questions for discussions:
1. Peace of Westphalia and its consequences.
2. The terms “state” and “nation” and their relationship.
3. The influence of the geopolitical factor on a state’s foreign policy behavior.
UNIT 3
