The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation and their graphical representation on the staves or in the line of text itself

The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation can be represented graphically: on the table so-called staves (Armstrong and Ward) and in the line of text.

The staves are 2 horizontal (parallel) lines that represent the approximate upper and lower limits of the pitch levels. It is practically impossible to count all pitch levels in an intonation group and name each. It is convenient for intonation analysis and teaching purposes to distinguish in the range of the human voice three pitch levels: high, mid, low. In highly emotional speech there may 2 more pitch levels: extra high and extra low.

Speech melody together with sentence stress is indicated on the staves with the help of dashes and dots placed on different levels. Dash (-) –for stressed syll. Dot (.)- for unstressed syll. A downward curve represents a stressed syll pronounced with a fall in pitch within syll١

An upward dash-represents a stressed syll pronounced with a rise pitch within syll  ﺭ

In the line of text intonation is indicated by means of tonetic (vertic and slanting) stress-marks that are placed above and below the line immediately before the syllables they refer to.

Territorial Varieties of English pronunciation. The orthoepic norm. The national language of England. Literary English. RP and GA.

Natural English has 2 material forms: written and spoken. The written form of a natural language is usually is standard which is generally accepted and it is the same throughout the country. But spoken form is not so uniform, it may vary from locality to locality and such forms of a language are called dialects and they may differ in grammar,vocabulary,pronunciation. The branch which deals with differences in pronunciation is called dialectology. All the natural varieties have very much in common. Standard pronunciation – is the one that carries orthoepic norm. It is neutral. It is pronunciation of educated circles and is used by radio/tv. Thanks to economic,political,social factors one of the dialects becomes orthoepic norm. Others are substandard and illiteral within a standard pronunciation. There are also may be variants considered as equal and standard. London became a centre of commerce, industry,learning in the 14^th cent. So London dialect is the basis of the national language of England. The literary form was developed. English people consider literary English to be a superior to other forms of English.The literary pronunciation is considered to be more beautiful, more correct than dialectal pronunciation.

National language (by Shweitzer) – historical category evolving from conditions of economic and political concentration. National pronunciation standard - socially accepted variety of a language established by a codified form of correctness. Today all the English-speaking nations have their own national variants of pronunciation. Each of them has peculiar features that distinguish it from other varieties of English. National standards are not fixed. They undergo constant changes due to internal and external factors. National variants of English differ in sound,stress,intonation. There are countries with more than 1 language (Canada – French and Eng). Here we speak about bilingualism in contrast to monoloingualism. As for USA- national standard is General American – it’s social standard,is spoken by educated Americans,used on radio/tv. For the Australian Eng – Educated Australian.

Spread of English.

Over 300 million people speak English as 1^st language. It is the national language of GB, USA,Australia, Canada, New Zeland.English was originally spoken in Eng and Scotland. Than it was introduced to the greater part of Scotland and Southern Ireland. In the 17^th -18^th cent it was brought to Northern America. Later in 18^th – 19^th cent Eng was exported to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa owing to colonial expansion. A flow of emigrants who went to invade, explore, inhabit those lands was mostly from Southern parts of Eng. The Eng language became wide-spread in Wales at the same time Welsh Eng is very similar to southern Eng, although the influence of Welsh has played a role information. Then in 20^th cent American Eng began to spread in Canada, Latin America, Bermudas and other parts of the world. Nowadays 2 types of Eng are spoken in the Eng-speaking world. They are: 1. Eng-Eng (based group) – English English, Welsh Eng, Australian Eng, New Zealand Eng. 2. American –Eng (based group) – United states Eng, Canadian Eng.