Morphological transformations

 

Differences between English and Russian result in real difficulties a translator faces and these are morphological transformations which are often the only mean to overcome the difficulty. Morphological transformations involve change of a part of speech, special character of translation of an article, specific translation of tenses and mode, the categories of number, gender, etc. Some types of morphological transformations will be considered in a more detailed way.

2.2.1. Article

Article determines whether the noun is definite or indefinite. That’s why one should bear in mind that while translating from English into Russian it is necessary to convey the meaning of articles. “When a translator pays little attention to that, the meaning of a Russian sentence is not quite equivalent to the original one”[3]. The meaning of articles is usually rendered with lexical means, or word order; thus, the following transformations are used: substitution and addition (absence of article in Russian results in its substitution with other lexical unit, thus, causing addition), omission (if an article has no additional meaning, it can be omitted while translating).

…He is a reliable man, they say…[1]

…Говорят, на него вполне можно положиться…[2]

The article of the source sentence is transformed into some lexical units in the target sentence because some functions of English articles are difficult to render in Russian. Thus, the target sentence involves such words as вполне that has a bit generalized colouring about the subject and does not characterize the subject or a person exactly. Also we should mention the position of the phrase they say. It changes its position in the target sentence and confers the part of the meaning of the indefinite article in the sentence. The position of the phrase говорят confers a bit generalizing connotation to the whole phrase.

 

2.2.1.1. Indefinite Article

Indefinite article generally classifies subject and its belonging to some class disregarding its specific features and peculiarities. Sometimes indefinite article is very close in its meaning to such indefinite pronouns as some and any. In that case its meaning should be rendered in the translation. E.V. Kurovskaya points out that “use of an article with a naming component determines the use of those meaningful components which could be expresses with the article in the original text” [7] and sometimes the article with a naming component can change semantics considerably.

…There was a foreigner with us who made the explosion…[1]	…С нами был один иностранец, он закладывал динамит…[2]
A translator used one of the most frequent ways to render the indefinite article into Russian as there is no category of article in Russian. Thus, translators often resort to adding some lexical units. In this particular case, the word один was used and actually it is the direct semantics of the indefinite article which was derived from the word one in English.

 

 

…Do you see a defect in one of these?…[1]

…Видишь ты у них какие-нибудь недостатки?…[2]

This example involves two types of morphological transformations. As for rendering the meaning of the indefinite article, it should be pointed out that the article was translated with the help of the Russian pronoun какие-нибудь. This is another example of how articles can be translated into Russian. It is also worth mentioning that there is the Plural in the Russian translation in spite of the article a, that is the article of the Singular in the source text.

 

…It was a very rare name … [1]

… Чуднóе такое имя…[2]

This particular case is characterized with the third variant of rendering the article. The word такое shows that a speaker is a bit perplexed with an unknown name which he has never heard. The word такой conveys these particular connotations for the Russian speaking reader. Certain effect is created with little inversion of two words in the Russian translation чудное and такое which should be posed in the contrary order according to norms. But here the translator arranged them in this way, thus, making them sound in the way the author provisioned.

 

2.2.1.2. Definite article

Definite article has the limiting function. “ It marks a subject out of a class of similar ones, makes it more concrete”[8]. Sometimes definite article has its primary meaning of a demonstrative pronoun from which it is derived.

…That is the sadness that comes before the sell-out…[1]

… Так печален бывает тот, кто завтра станет предателем…[2]

This is one of the ways to convey the meaning of the definite article which define an exact subject. As there is no such a category in Russian, translators have to render the meaning of the article with the help of lexical means. As we can see in the given example, the meaning of the article was rendered with the indicative word так which showed the degree of sadness. And the word sadness was converted into an adjective. Thus, the source sentence underwent double morphological transformation.

 

…There is the badness …[1]	… Вот оно, зло…[2]
The word вот is another way of conveying the definite article into Russian. Because this word indicates the object directly, thus, implementing the main function of the definite article that is marking the object out of similar one and making it singular. Nevertheless, conveying the meaning of the article caused transposition of the sentence.

 

 

2.2.2. Unconformity of the Category of Number

    Both Russian and English have the category of number. However, use of nouns in singular and plural are often different in terms of countable and uncountable nouns. This fact causes transformations while translating, in particular, substitution of an English noun in plural with a Russian one in singular, and backwards.

    There a lot of cases exist when one form in singular in Russian corresponds with an English form in plural.

E.g. овес – oats, лук – onion, картофель - potatoes, окраина (города) – outskirts, etc.

And on the contrary, a Russian form in plural corresponds with an English form in singular.

E.g.деньги - money, чернила - ink, новости - news,сведения – information, etc.

Thus, substitution of number stems there [9].

…the patchy sunlight shone on the coat of the bay stallion…[1]	…на спине гнедого жеребца играли солнечные блики …[2]
Though it is not the grammatical unconformity of number but the translator chose a noun in Plural to convey the word sunlight into Russian. The word light is of rather general and broad meaning that’s why the translator opted for a more concrete and colourful variant for translation.

 

2.2.3. Grammatical Gender.

English category of gender is rather relative. Practically, the category of gender is concerned when it comes to reference to the real biological gender. As for Russian, here reference to the grammatical gender is obligatory, thus, determining a grammatical transformation – substitution of a word form while translating from English into Russian.

… It [operation ] can be successful with that bridge eliminated…[1]	…Если удастся разрушить мост, она может быть успешной…[2]
Translation from English presupposes pointing the gender of the Russian noun. As we see, the noun operation corresponds with it, but the equivalent word операция is feminine in Russian. Again it should be mentioned that the order of the clauses changes and transposition takes place in the above sentence because the thematic and the rhematic relation which are different in English and Russian.

 

…Have you never seen it [seal]?… [1]	…Ты ее не знаешь?…[2]
As there is no feminine grammatical gender in English, all the unanimated objects are supposed to be it. Nevertheless Russian has rather diverted system of grammatical gender, thus, the translator effected the transformation of grammatical gender.

Mostly, translator takes the norms of his native language, its traditions, due to that one animals, plants, birds are feminine, and others are masculine, thus, changing one gender to another one. Change of the gender of nouns also depends on a word which a translator chooses for the target text among a great variety of synonyms. Nevertheless, the category of gender is rather developed in Russian that’s why the amount of transformation increases in this respect.

 

2.2.4. Change of Parts of Speech

    Change of parts of speech is one of the most frequent morphological transformations. Such changes result from “different word use and their combinatory rules in English and Russian, and in some cases – absence of such a part of speech in Russian”[8].

    Noun is subject to such a morphological transformation most. While translating from English into Russian, an English verbal noun is converted into a finite verb.

It is worth mentioning that some English nouns are translated as finite verbs and as verbal nouns.

Translation of the predicate often provokes grammatical transformations, what is usually related with change of parts of speech (the latter results in syntactical transformations).

…He was often hungry but he was not usually worried …[1]

… Чувство голода было для него привычным, но тревогу ему не часто приходилось испытывать…[2]

As exemplified by the sentences, the adjective and the verb of the source sentence are transformed into nouns in the target sentence. Thus, conversion takes place alongside with change of the parts of the sentence as well. Hungry and worried were components of the predicate in the source text. After translation they became the subject and the supplement. Therefore, here adjective is transformed into a noun, and a verb is transformed into a noun as well.

 

…The mountain sloped gently where he lay… [1]

… Склон в этом месте был не крутой …[2]

The word slope represents at least two parts of speech in English – the verb and the noun. Thus, in the dictionary we see the article: slope - v 1) клониться; иметь наклон; опускаться или подниматься наклонно; n 2) наклон, уклон б) скат, склон; откос, крутизна, спуск. The translator took advantage of such converting capability of the word and constructed a Russian phrase which sounded more idiomatic than if we kept the verb to slope in the Russian translation. Also the transformation of the article is worth mentioning because the definite article was transposed into Russian as the word это that corresponds with its English etymology.

 

There are cases when other parts of speech are changed. So, pronoun is often subject to transformation (converted into a noun).

Adjectives are often converted into nouns and backwards. For example,

…He was a short and solid old man in a black peasant’s smock and gray iron-stiff trousers and he wore rope-soled shoes …[1]

…Это был невысокий, коренастый старик в черной крестьянской блузе и серых штанах из грубой ткани; на ногах у него были сандалии на веревочной подошве …[2]

Here nouns with attributes (adjectives) are converted into nouns with prepositions and a word combination. The Russian language does not have the similar system of forming adjectives as the English language does. For example, we get an adjective: (rope) sole + ed – rope-soled, with the ending –ed added to the noun stem that transfers not only the object as itself but also the material it is made of. In the Russian translation one should imply it with lexical units.

 

Participle is often translated with a finite verb.

…But he was not worried by any of that…[1]	…Но это его не тревожило …[2]
A participle converts into a finite verb, thus, changing the passive construction of the source sentence into the active construction of the target sentence.

 

…You have a funny name in Spanish, Comrade Hordan…[1]

… Смешно звучит ваше имя по-испански, товарищ Хордан…[2]

An adjective which had an attributive function was converted into an adverb describing the way how the name sounds in Spanish. Such transformations occur rather often because the combination of a verb with an adverb describing the action is more typical of Russian. Also the transposition and transformation are worth mentioning because, as we can see, the verb have was rendered as звучит and actually the supplement name became the subject in the Russian sentence.

Translation generates some other types of changes which may often correlate with change of sentence parts, thus, causing rearrangements of syntactical structure of the sentence.

 

 

2.2.5. Unconformity of the Tense

Sometimes the source sentences are translated into the target language without strict observance of the tense employed. It depends on the stylistical features and syntactical requirements. There cases when Present Simple is translated as Future Simple. In fact, it is the so called stylistic Future.

…Always there is something…[1]	…Что-нибудь всегда найдется …[2]
The statement is proved by the present example. The pattern there is is transformed as the finite verb in the Future Tense найдется.

 

…It is my attack… [1]	… Наступать буду я…[2]
This example demonstrates the transition from the Present Tense form to the Future form in Russian. The inverted word order of the target sentence makes the emphasis on the agent of the action я while the main emphasis in English is made on the pronoun my.

 

…I have not told you anything you must do…[1]	…Я не указываю тебе, что ты должен делать…[2]
The sentence in Present Perfect was rendered as the sentence of the imperfective aspect that occurs quite often while conveying the meaning of Present Perfect into Russian because Russian has less diversified system of tenses. As for the rest parts of the sentence, they were translated with scarce changes.

Summing up morphological transformations, it is necessary to point out that:

1. The category of definiteness /indefiniteness, which is presented with corresponding articles in English, is often translated with additional lexical units to reach equal meaning and stylistic framing. It often results in further transformations within a sentence.

2. A translator should substitute singular with plural and backward if it requires norms of the languages. Since English has no category of gender, it should be introduced in Russian translated text. Besides, in the cases when pronouns are introduced of certain gender, a translator should consider not only grammatical features of the source language, but also peculiarities of national mind of native speakers.

3. Change of parts of speech is one of the most frequent transformation (nouns, pronouns, verbs, non-finite verbs, and adjectives). So, parts of speech are changed to reach equal meaning and expressiveness, thus, causing the change of syntactical structure, which will be considered in a detailed way in the following chapter. Nevertheless, sometimes change of parts of speech cam be considered as inevitable in translation because changes can be explained by combinatory norms of words implied.

4. Translation’s decisions on unconformity of tenses occur mostly due to stylistic preferences and a little number of Russian grammatical tenses. There are only 3 tenses in Russian as compared with very diversified tense system in English. That is the reason for a set of transformation typical of synthetical language that is Russian.

2.3. Syntactical transformations

2.3.1.Transposition of sentence members

Transposition of sentence members results in change of syntactical structure of the sentence. This happens when a part of speech is changed. Considerable transposition of syntactical structure is connected with change of principle members of a sentence, especially, the subject. In English-Russian translations the reason for such changes is that “ the English subject seldom functions as the subject of the action”[5], for example:

– The object of the action (the subject is substituted with the supplement),

– Markers of time (the subject is substituted with adverbial modifier of time),

– Definition of place (the subject is substituted with adverbial modifier of place),

– Definition of cause (the subject is substituted with adverbial modifier of cause), etc.

The reason for grammatical transformation in English is frequent use of nouns which signify inanimate objects or notions, as “the agent of the action (i.e. the subject), that can be considered as a sort of personification. Such personification is not a stylistic device at all, because it is a linguistic phenomenon, but not that of speech and does not have individual character”[8].

One of the most wide spread syntactical transformations of this kind is substitution of an English passive pattern with a Russian active pattern, thus, “converting the English subject into the Russian supplement in the sentence; and in a Russian sentence the subject is the word which corresponds with the English supplement with by or there is no subject at all (the so called “indefinite-personal pattern); Passive Voice in English is converted into Active voice in Russian”[9].

It should also be pointed out that sometimes the translator succeeds in keeping the structure of the source text without stylistic losses for the target text. For example,

…Bending under the weight of the packs, sweating, they climbed steadily in the pine forest that covered the mountain side …[1]	…Согнувшись под тяжестью рюкзаков, обливаясь потом, они стали взбираться по склону, густо поросшему сосняком…[2
A compound sentence is transformed into a simple one with several adverbial participle constructions and a participle construction. As seen from the example, the translator keeps the original structure of the sentence.

Transformations of such a kind (Passive into Active) are rather frequent and considered in many books and manuals on Grammar of English which are supposed for Russian students. They are reversible like other transformations above mentioned in the present work. The opposite transformation is applied (active into passive) while translating from Russian into English.

…The young man, whose name was Robert Jordan, was extremely hungry and was worried …[1]

…Роберт Джордан – так звали молодого – мучительно хотел есть, и на душе у него было неспокойно …[2]

This example proves the afore statement about transformation of Passive Voice into Active One while translating from English. It should be noted that the sentence has two subjects in the target variant. The translator made two subjects instead of one and, thus, avoiding the passive construction in the target text. Certain transposition of the members of the sentence is worth mentioning. In the source variant the name of the main character is concluded in the subordinate clause, while in the target variant, these two parts are in reverse order.

There are many cases when the English subject is translated as the adverbial modifier. This transformation occurs when the English subject is in the beginning of the sentence and expresses some adverbial notions. In such cases the English subject becomes the adverbial modifier of place in Russian.

One should remember that members of the sentence are changed due to stylistic purposes but not grammatical ones.

2.3.2. Transformation of Simple Sentence into Complex Sentence.

The most relevant reason is of system character. Transformation is usually applied while translating simple English sentences with complex syntactical components – Infinitive, Gerund, and Absolute Constructions. “There is no Russian system analogue of the English syntactical complexes. That makes translation transformations inevitable”[10]. As a rule, when such complexes are translated into Russia, the type of the sentence is changed, and “the simple sentence converts into the complex sentence, more rarely into a compound sentence”[10].

Simple sentences in English texts are subject to internal fragmentation while converting into complex structures in translation. Transformations can be explained by some grammatical reasons (for example, absence of the same category in Russian).

…So much talking makes me thirsty, Comrade Jordan…[1]

… Когда я много говорю, мне всегда очень хочется пить, товарищ Хордан… [2]

 

Absence of the category of Gerund is the reason for this kind of transformation. Gerund is a very broad category in English which can be rendered into Russian with a lot of grammatical means - noun, verb, clause, etc. Therefore, the simple sentence containing Gerund as the subject was transformed into the compound sentence where Gerund is represented as the subordinate clause.

In other cases transformations are the result of stylistic reasons.

Passive patterns are less employed in Russian as compared with English and have absolutely different stylistic connotation. English Passive is stylistically neutral; though it is more used in bookish and written speech, meanwhile in Russian Passive prevails only in bookish and written speech of official and scientific character[10].

Reduction and simplification of complex syntactical structure result in drop of polysemy, creating monosemantic relations among components: “Translator analyses the initial sentence, transforms it into simpler and more definite forms, transposes them into the source language system and then reestablishes messages at this level into the source language system and then transpose them into the target language”[11].

2.3.3. Transformation of Complex Sentence into Simple Sentence

Normative and stylistic factors are the main reasons for the syntactical transformation of this type in literary translation. In particular, there are a lot of complex sentences in English texts as compared with Russian ones.

…The mountain sloped gently where he lay …[1]	…Склон в этом месте был не крутой…[2]
As we can see in the example that the translator reduced considerably the structure of the original phrase and transformed compound sentence into a simple one. The subordinate clause was transformed into the adverbial modifier of place. Actually it does not contradict the literary method of the author who strived to make up phrases as simple as possible.

 

…His shirt was still wet from where the pack had rested…[1]	…Рубашка на спине еще не просохла после подъема на гору…[2]
The subordinate clause of place was transformed into the adverbial modifier of place, thus, simplifying the structure of the source sentence. Actually, this transformation has to do with lexical transformation of concretization because the original description of the place where the pack was conveyed into Russian with more exact meaning.

Thus, subordinate clauses may convert into participle (participle clause), adverbial participle (adverbial participle clause), and a verbal noun with preposition.

…It was built since you were here …[1]

…Еe построили уже после тебя …[2]

The original phrase is quite light and does not sound “heavy” in English but if we tried to keep the original structure while translating into Russian, it would be overloaded with syntactical construction and the so-called “syntactical tails” which can but affect idiomaticity of the translated phrase. The translated phrase should be as informationally charged and produce the same effect as the original phrase does using means of the target language. This effect we can see in the example.

English complex sentences with the patterns It (was)…that (who) are often translated as simple sentences in Russian. “ This regularity occurs mostly while translating attributive clause and adverbial clause”[12].

… It is not the top of the pass where we attack…[1]

…Мы начинаем не у входа в ущелье…[2]

The emphatic construction was transformed in an adverbial modifier of place but nevertheless it is stressed more that others parts of the sentence. While translating similar construction from English, complex sentence usually is transformed into a simple one with a range of supplements substituting the emphatic constructions of the target text. It is the result of the difference between language systems of English and Russian, thus, causing lexical addition in the Russian text. Russian emphasis is often expressed lexically as compared with syntactical emphasis of English. 

Emphatic constructions are rather difficult to translate because of hard search of the right and equivalent mean in the target language. The Russian language is rich with expressive means but they are mostly of lexical character but nevertheless the following example demonstrates that the lexical changes cause transposition of the whole sentence.

…Across this gorge is the bridge…[1]

…Вот через теснину и перекинут мост… [2]

This short utterance involves at least 3 translation techniques to render the peculiarities of the original phrase. Moreover, we should mention such a translation technique as inversion to comment on this particular example. Inversion is the changing of the usual order of words and used to give emphasis or to be rhetorical in more formal situations, in political speeches, on the news, and also in literature. Some native speakers may also use them occasionally in day-to-day conversation. In the previous chapters we mentioned that Hemingway used a bit illiterate way of making up sentences to show that the utterance was not pronounced by a native English speaker but, in this particular novel, by a Spaniard. Thus, only a native English can distinguish the phrase uttered by a foreigner from that of native speaker. Unfortunately, this colouring is lost in translation. But here the translator got through the situation and made the phrase sound natural and very colloquial. Such words as Вот and и which are put in a little bit inverted order create the colloquial colouring. Also we should point out that inversion is present not only in the source text but in the target text as well because of the adverbial modifier of place вот через теснину. Here translator’s knowledge of the author’s literary style should be marked positively because otherwise this phrase would lose its ideal content.

… With him was another man…[1]

…С ним шел еще один человек…[2]

 

Another example of inversion shows that it is rather an effective way of emphasizing the idea of the utterance. Here inversion was applied to mark the word another man. Nevertheless, in the target sentence usual word order can be observed but the word еще put stress onto the idea which was in the source sentence.

2.3.4. Sentence Fragmentation

Sentence fragmentation is rather effective for literary translation and has normative reasons. As a result of sentence fragmentation, one initial sentence (more often complex and rarely simple sentence) transforms into two sentences (or more).

English sentences can be overloaded with information which passes through several rather independent ideas. “It is no use of keeping the structure of such English sentences while translation, because such overload with information does not correspond with norms of the Russian language”[10].

The process of sentence fragmentation into several independent sentences is a distinct case of autonomation of the source structures, for example, in dramatic works.

Fragmentation results in reduction of the sentence while translation. Splitting large constructions into independent elements results in simplification of sentence structure.

… The hoof is split and although it might not get worse, soon if shod properly, she could break down if she travels over much hard ground…[1]

… У нее в копыте трещина. Правда, если подковать, как следует, это дальше не пойдет, но долго скакать по твердому грунту ей нельзя, копыто не выдержит… [2]

The source sentence was fragmentized into two independent one but with strong contextual cohesion. The subject of the first clause was changed to the adverbial modifier in the target sentence. The link between the principle sentence and the subordinate one was transposed as the word правда, and with an impersonal sentence added to it. Practically all the clauses comprised in the source sentence were transformed into impersonal ones that were more typical of Russian. The use of feminine pronoun regarding a horse is also worth noticing. This pronoun she was present as in the source text as in the target one.

Sometimes fragmentation and integration occur simultaneously while translation. But there are cases when sentence fragmentation is not actual for translation of some texts and literary works. It is connected with the author’s style. For example, Hemingway made up rather compact sentences. Here his literary technique should be mentioned. He strived to make taciturn sentences and words but with expressive context and bright connotation. Thus, his sentences were always well disciplined, each member implied its own function and meaning and the syntactical cohesion was remarkable.

2.3.5.Sentence Integration

Sentence integration is transforming and uniting two or more independent sentences into one sentence.

Sentence integration results in compression of the source phrase retaining “information value and text cohesion”[13].

Components of actual fragmentation remained unchanged in spite of integration of internal structure and the meaning was rendered correctly. Compression inside of the components didn’t provoke any sense distortion because theme and rheme kept their functions while translation. But if one phrase includes several messages and, respectively, several rhemes, these themes become one while translation. Therefore, one can assert that translation is indispensable without losses. Information Theory of Translation confirms this assumption. “Translation keeps only a part of the original. Losses are inevitable while communication in two languages as well as in any other communication”[14].

Analysis of the novel, that serves the material for the thesis, showed that the author’s style and his literary techniques made sentence integration almost a forbidden transformation. As previous chapters mentioned, Hemingway opted for laconic syntactical structure and the translator kept the author’s principle with great care. While reading and comparing the original of the novel with its translation, there were no interesting cases of integration found.

2.3.6.Transformation of Two-Member Sentence into a Mononuclear Sentence

System features are main reason for this type of transformation though it is rather a rare type of transformation. Both principle members of the sentence are obligatory in an English sentence, as a rule. In Russian such contents of the sentence is not obligatory and one of the principle members may miss.

…How many attacks have you seen and you ask me why?… [1]	…Мало ли вы наступлений видели, если спрашиваете меня почему?… [2]
As it is seen from the example, the second subject in the subordinate clause is missing. This proves the features of Russian where one of the subject, if it is the same, may be omitted and actually the sentence becomes mononuclear one.

2.3.7. Transformation of the Type of Syntactic Cohesion

Sentences can be linked with both coordinating and subordinating means in Russian as well as in English. “However, in Russian coordination conjunctions prevail, whereas subordinating conjunctions in English, if not prevail, occur more frequently that in Russian”[9]. That’s why while translation from English into Russian subordination is transformed into coordination. 

It is worth mentioning that transformation of subordination into coordination mostly go with change of conjunction link into asydenton.

Transformation of subordination into coordination (asydenton as well) can occur within a simple sentence. Individual choice of a translator is one of the reasons for that type of transformation.

…This is the easy country of the pass where the stream flows gently …[1]

…Тут место ровное, и река течет спокойно…[2]

Subordination is transformed into coordination due to the initial words in the Russian translation. Actually, the initial phrase тут место ровное instead of the English variant This is the easy country of the pass prevents the use of subordination. The translator wanted to create the sentence where one circumstance (место ровное) supplements to the other (… и река течет спокойно) as compared with the English one where one part (the easy country) is characteristic of the other (where the stream flows gently).

As an example of syntactic beginning domination in English, one should remember frequent use of homogeneous parts of the sentence linked with the conjunction and which belong to different logical plans[10].

But change of syntactic link is effected not only at sentence level or word combination, but also at phrase level.

…He lay flat on the brown, pine-needled floor of the forest, his chin on his folded arms,and high overhead the wind blew in the tops of the pine trees… [1]

…Он лежал на устланной сосновыми иглами бурой земле, уткнув подбородок в скрещенные руки,а ветер шевелил над ним верхушки высоких сосен…[2]

The present example shows the transformation of the word combination “his chin on his folded arms” into the adverbial participle construction «уткнув подбородок в скрещенные руки». Actually, here we deal with partially morphological transformation. As for the change of the structure, it was effected with minimal losses and the translator managed to keep the original syntactical structure without transpositions and maintaining the rhythm of the original phrase.

 

…He worked his arm through the other strap and settled the weight of the pack against his back…[1]	…Потом надел другую лямку и поправил рюкзак, чтобы тяжесть пришлась на всю спину…[2]
Here the coordination in the source sentence was change into the subordination and the clause of purpose, in particular. Such transformations often occur while translating from English into Russian. In terms of syntactical transformations it should be marked that in there are one subject in the source text and two subjects in the target texts ([он] надел and тяжесть пришлась).

 

2.3.8. Change of Actual Sentence Fragmentation During Translation

A translator should catch the whole figurative system made by the author of the source text to convey it correctly into the target language. This figurative reproduction depends on sentence structure, that is actual thematic-rhematic articulation or actual sentence fragmentation. Word order is the most important factor to distribute communicative functions among parts of the sentence.

…He remembered now noticing, without realizing it, that Pablo’s trousers were worn soapy shiny in the knees and thighs…[1]

…Ему вспомнилось, что штаны Пабло вытерты до блеска на коленях и с внутренней стороны ляжек, он заметил это сразу, но как-то не придал значения …[2]

Transposition of the initial members of the sentence is connected with certain stress imposed on these members. Transformation results from thematic and rhematic difference. Russian rheme tends to have final position as compared with English one. Also Gerund was transformed into subordinate clauses that is transformation typical of English –Russian translation as there is no category of Gerund in Russian. Conversion of the principal clause is also significant. The phrase he remembered (subject + predicate) was transformed into Passive construction with the impersonal finite verb вспомнилось with the supplement ему.

Professional literature considers Russian free word order and English fixed word order as two opposite syntactical structures. However, comparative analysis of some English and Russian inversion structures proves that significance of English word order and free position of words in Russian were overestimated.

Different functionality of word order is result of different proportion of formal and actual fragmentation of Russian and English sentence. Whereas word order in an English sentence is for conveying the communicative type of the sentence and determination grammatical relations among its members, cohesive function and the function highlighting the rheme are the dominant functions of word order. [15]

Change of conventional word order as in an English text as in a Russian one contributes to positional contact of the sentences in the literary work and conveys emphasis, accentuating the rhythm of narration.

…Across this gorge is the bridge…[1]

…Вот через теснину и перекинут мост… [2]

This short utterance involves at least 3 translation techniques to render the peculiarities of the original phrase. Moreover, we should mention such a translation technique as inversion to comment on this particular example. Inversion is the changing of the usual order of words and used to give emphasis or to be rhetorical in more formal situations, in political speeches, on the news, and also in literature. Some native speakers may also use them occasionally in day-to-day conversation. In the previous chapters we mentioned that Hemingway used a bit illiterate way of making up sentences to show that the utterance was not pronounced by a native English speaker but, in this particular novel, by a Spaniard. Thus, only a native English can distinguish the phrase uttered by a foreigner from that of native speaker. Unfortunately, this colouring is lost in translation. But here the translator got through the situation and made the phrase sound natural and very colloquial. Such words as Вот and и which are put in a slightly inverted order create the colloquial colouring. Also we should point out that inversion is present not only in the source text but in the target text as well because of the adverbial modifier of place вот через теснину. Here translator’s knowledge of the author’s literary style should be marked positively because otherwise this phrase would lose its ideal content.

Changing of the position of the supplement in the beginning occurs rather often, when inversion in an English sentence occurs due to positional contact among the elements and is not used for emphasis.

Inversion of the predicate in the beginning of the phrase does not remain while translating into Russian.

In particular, inverted predicate member of the compound nominate predicate is usually placed in the end of a Russian sentence because the final position in the Russian sentence is rather expressive point. [12]

Adverbial modifiers of manner and degree have stylistically important position in translation when they are in the beginning of the utterance or after the verb.

Word order of parts of a complex sentence is often changed while translation that is parts of principle and subordinate sentence.

In English subordinate clause precedes the principle clause, in Russian this is on the contrary. But some opposite cases occur.

– “It [attack] will start on time, if it is your attack, ” – Robert Jordan said. – “They are never my attacks,” – Golz said. [1]	– Если наступлением руководите вы, оно начнется вовремя, – сказал тогда Роберт Джордан. Я никогда не руковожу наступлением, – сказал Гольц. [2]
In the target sentence the subordinate clause precedes the principle one has a little bit inverted word order because the pronoun is at the end of the clause. Thus, an emphasis is made on the agent of the action. The key word of the reply is the word never. It is emphasized in both variants with intonation, with certain syntactical structure and it really sounds as the marked word.

Finally, independent sentences within the text can be subject of transposition.

On the whole, even analysis of limited number of examples shows that actual sentence fragmentation is an important element of creating rhythm and style, has cohesive function in the literary text. The main reason for that are typological features of languages and their grammar rules.

After analyzing main types of syntactical transformations to reach equivalent translation, one should consider the following:

1. Syntactical adaptation, as a translation technique, presupposes converting syntactical structure of the source language into similar structure of the target language. It is possible when both languages of the translation have replicate syntactical constructions.

2. A translator often has to use actual sentence fragmentation when the original sentence of the source language converts into 2 or more independent sentences. This transformation results in change of sentence components or transforming a simple sentence into a complex one.

3. Reverse transformation is integration of 2 simple sentence of the source language into one complex sentence of the target language. Sometimes integration and fragmentation correlate when one sentence is divided into 2 parts, and one of its parts joins other sentence. This process is usually linked with transposition of predicative syntagmas. But the matter of the author’s laconic style should be consider as a question of principle as well.

4. Change of members of the sentence results in change of its syntactical structure. Complex sentence can convert into compound sentence with homogeneous predicates.

5.  A translator should use actual fragmentation to reach adequate figurative system of the source text. Word order is the most important factor to distribute communicative functions among members of the sentence. Inversion is a significant expressive mean as in Russian as in English.

6. A translator often uses compensation to reach the equivalent figurative image of the literary text. Compensation presupposes when lost components of the source language reoccur in the target language in some other forms. Grammatical means of the source language are often substituted with lexical ones and on the contrary. So, grammatical and lexical means join each other to ensure completely equivalent translation.

7. A translator uses compensation especially to make up for loss of certain stylistic and figurative aspects of the source text. 

8. Phrase, a clause or a sentence is a translation unit concerning syntactical transformations.

 

 

6.Summary on Different Types of Transformations

 

The matter of grammatical transformations is very vital because it is the work of the translator as it is. Analysis of each type of transformation is important because it helps beginners to realize how some transformations work and how they transpose the source sentence. It concerns knowledge not only of the foreign language which the translator works with but also knowledge of the native language. Nevertheless, one should consider all the types of grammatical transformation as the entire unity because it constitutes the entire picture of the translated text as a literary work. The following examples will show how lexical, morphological and syntactical transformations coexist within one unit of translation and the main role of each of them will be pointed out.

Sometimes knowledge of Grammar is vital to choose necessary stylistic technique for translation.

…He must have an outfit…[1]

…Наверное, у него полная экипировка…[2]

The verb must is used in the source sentence in its modal meaning of probability what the translator conveyed in the target text. It caused the syntactical transposition. The verb must is converted into the adverb наверное in the target sentence. The syntactical structure of the sentence was changed. It became impersonal sentence. The subject he became the supplement него. The word outfit is rather polysemantic in English and was translated as экипировка that is with more concretized meaning. Nevertheless, the average length of the original sentence is kept and the target sentence is equivalent in terms of expressiveness. Translation is realized at a word and a phrase level.

 The translator is capable of changing the syntactical structure of the sentence in order to create another one in the target language which would sound more idiomatic. A range of grammatical transformation is employed for that purpose.

…That is the sadness they get before they quit or before they betray…[1]

…Так печальны бывают люди перед тем, как дезертировать или изменить… [2]

The source sentence implies the emphatic construction that is ….. The Russian translation comprises the word так as the indication of manner and the grade of the state, thus, marking and keeping the stress on the initially accentuated words in the source sentences. As for syntactical structure of the sentences, the target sentence is more simplified because it contains less grammatical stems: that is the sadness, they get, they quit, they betray. There are four grammatical stems in the source sentence. The Russian translation comprises only 2. The parallel patterns - before they quit or before they betray was united into one and became homogeneous parts of the sentence. The word they was concretized and translated as люди. The word quit is given with more exact meaning closer to the context - дезертировать. The word sadness underwent morphological transformation and became an adjective печальный. The translation was effected at sentence level.

The following example shows that the translator should keep the chosen pattern of grammatical members and the way of description in the consequent sentence to ensure the logical cohesion of the whole text.

…That is the sadness that comes before the sell-out…[1]

…Так печален бывает тот, кто завтра станет предателем… [2]

Here approximately the same set of grammatical transformation is used. The translator keeps the same way of narration involving such word as печален, предатель, and бывает. It proves that the translation is not only mechanical reproduction of the foreign text but also a well disciplined and carefully planned literary work. As for some other transformation employed in the above example one can notice that the translator introduced a person into his translation. The translator overviews the idea from the point of view of a person who can betray, quit and have such sadness. The word sell-out is very specific here because it possesses a series of meaning which are different from and connection between these meaning can be traced with the help of association and figurative thinking. Sell-out is распродажа, торг, полный аншлаг, концерт, and измена. The necessary word goes the last in the list of meaning that a dictionary provides.

…Robert Jordan was pleased to hear him speak proudly…[1]

…Роберту Джордану приятно было, что в голосе у него звучит гордость…[2]

First, it should be pointed out that the Complex Object was transformed into a subordinate clause in the target sentence and the reason for that is that there is no such a grammatical category in Russian. Thus, we can state that the syntactical transformation is caused by difference of language systems. The subject of the source sentence was converted into the supplements of the target one and the principal clause with Passive Voice became an impersonal clause. The adverb proudly was converted into the noun гордость, the verb speak within the Complex Object was transposed as звучит (о голосе). Nevertheless, the average length of the author’s sentence was kept; it was not overloaded with abundant lexical means, etc.

 

…He was a beautiful horse that looked as though he had come out of a painting by Velazquez…[1]

…Это был красавец конь, словно сошедший с картины Веласкеса…[2]

As it is known, animals and all the inanimate objects in English correspond with the pronoun it. However, the author uses the pronoun he concerning the horse, thus, emphasizing this animal which possibly has greater importance. The translator took this detail into account and used rather an idiomatic expression in the translation «красавец конь», thus, converting the adjective beautiful into the noun красавец. The source sentence is a compound one with as though being a link between clauses. The target sentence resulted to be a simple one comprising a participle clause with description of a horse.

 

“They [horses] are all good,” said Pablo. – “You know horses?” “Yes” “Less bad” – said Pablo…[1]

…–Они все хороши, сказал Пабло. –Ты знаешь толк в лошадях? –Да. –Тем лучше,– сказал Пабло.[2]

This example was brought to show the author’s technique with foreigner’s speech in English. Here is the conversation between an English speaking person and a Spaniard whose speech was rendered in English by the author. The first utterance involves this phrase “ You know horses?” that is quite illiterate in English. This feature can be recognized only by a native English speaking reader but it is lost while translation. And we see that clearly looking at the target sentence. The translation of the phrase sounds quite natural and literate in Russian. And the final utterance “ Less bad ” was conveyed with antonymic translation and looks quite ordinary in Russian. Special colouring was missed.

 

…The horses all still had their heads up looking at the man…[1]

…Лошади по-прежнему стояли, подняв голову, и смотрели на Пабло…[2]

The simple sentence was converted into a complex one with an adverbial construction. There is a case of concretization and addition here because in the target text the translator adds such words as стояли и смотрели looking at is for смотрели. Actually, a range of morphological transformations as effected because of Gerund, adjective which was rendered as a verb in Russian and a peculiar English construction “have smth done (or adjective)”. The word man was concretized and rendered as Pablo, the name of one of the characters” in the target text. The meaning of the definite article was not reflected because the idea was clear due to the context.

 

…We were able to kill them without injuring the horses…[1]

…Вот нам удалось убить их так, что лошади остались целы… [2]

The principle clause was transformed into an impersonal sentence with a finite verb, the subject of the source sentence became the supplement. As there is no Gerund in Russia, translator has to find ways to render the meaning of the Gerund. Thus, here the Gerund was transposed as the subordinate clause of manner and the supplement of the source sentence horses became the subject of the subordinate clause of the target sentence.

 

…There was a foreigner with us who made the explosion…[1]

…С нами был иностранец, он закладывал динамит…[2]

The English speech pattern there was was transformed into a clause with a finite verb, thus, syntactical transformation took place. As for lexical tranformation, concretization should be pointed out because the source sentence involves information only about the explosion whereas the target sentence mentions динамит that is the way of making explosion. This information is clear from the context which the translator used to make the idea clearer.

 

…I see them always stronger always better armed…[1]

…У них раз от разу все больше силы, все лучше снаряжение… [2]

Sometimes one should point out translator’s attempts to keep the source syntactical structure. The syntactical structure of the source sentence can be characterized with parallel patterns “ always…always …”. The translator tried to make up the target sentence following this model what resulted in another parallel construction which sounds rather idiomatic in Russian. The supplement of the source sentence was converted into the subject of the target one. The participle armed of the source sentence was transformed into the noun снаряжение, the adjective stronger was transposed as силы. So, conversion takes place. Nevertheless, the syntactical idea and rhythm of the sentence was preserved by the translator.

The given examples show that one should consider transformations within one sentence as a complex unity. Sometimes one transformation provokes another one, thus, resulting, in a sort of linguistic “chain reaction” but syntactically based one. The role of each transformation is important for the target text because it approaches the source text and the source idea to notions and construction which are understandable for the foreign readers.

100 examples were analyzed within the framework of the thesis. 56 examples were considered in the present work and given comments on with main transformation techniques pointed out and explanation. It is necessary to consider transformations as a complex unity with a unit of translation. The volume of the unit depends on translator’s decision, stylistic norms of the target language and certain linguistic factors (absence of some categories in the target language). The following table involves only general examples on types of transformations.

Here are examples sourced from the 40 pages of the novel “For Whom The Bell Tolls”. The percentage shows the occurrence of certain types of transformation within the material understudied. Some of the examples reveal the translator’s technique of keeping the author’s style with means of the target language.

Lexical Transformations – 24%
· Generalization
…He spread the photostated military map out of the forest floor and looked at it carefully…[1]	…Он разложил на земле карту и внимательно вгляделся в нее… [2]
· Concretization
…His shirt was still wet from where the pack had rested…[1]	…Рубашка на спине еще не просохла после подъема на гору…[2]
…It is only by doing nothing that we are able to live in these mountains…[1]	…Мы только потому и держимся в этих местах, что ничего здесь не затеваем …[2]
· Antonymic Translation
...That is simple …[1]	…Это не трудно …[2]
…He knew how to blow any sort of bridge that you could name …	… Нет такого моста, которого он не сумел бы взорвать…
Morphological Transformations – 30 %
· Rendering the Article
…He is a reliable man, they say…[1]	…Говорят, на него вполне можно положиться…[2]
…There was a foreigner with us who made the explosion…[1]	…С нами был один иностранец, он закладывал динамит…[2]
…That is the sadness that comes before the sell-out…[1]	… Так печален бывает тот, кто завтра станет предателем…[2]
· Unconformity of the Category of Number
…the patchy sunlight shone on the coat of the bay stallion…[1]	…на спине гнедого жеребца играли солнечные блики …[2]
· Grammatical Gender
… It [operation ] can be successful with that bridge eliminated…[1]	…Если удастся разрушить мост, она может быть успешной…[2]
· Change of Part of Speech
…He was often hungry but he was not usually worried …[1]	… Чувство голода было для него привычным, но тревогу ему не часто приходилось испытывать…[2]
…They had dismounted to ask papers of the driver of a cart…[1]	…Они спешились, чтобы проверить документы у крестьянина, который ехал на телеге…[2]
…But he was not worried by any of that…[1]	…Но это его не тревожило …[2]
· Unconformity of the Tense
…Always there is something…	…Что-нибудь всегда найдется …
…I have not told you anything you must do…[1]	…Я не указываю тебе, что ты должен делать…[2]
Syntactical Transformations – 50%
· Transposition of sentence members
…Bending under the weight of the packs, sweating, they climbed steadily in the pine forest that covered the mountain side …[1]	…Согнувшись под тяжестью рюкзаков, обливаясь потом, они стали взбираться по склону, густо поросшему сосняком…[2]
· Transformation of Simple Sentence into Complex Sentence	<