History of higher education

 

Higher education in Britain has a long and distinctive history. Yet it is only during the course of about the last 40 years that it has become possible to speak of a “system” of higher education in the United Kingdom. Up to comparatively recent times Britain was much behind many countries of the world in the provision of higher education. Even today less than one third of school leavers receive post-school education in Britain, compared with over 80 per cent in Germany, France, the United States and Japan.

Though Oxford and Cambridge appeared as early as 1168 and 1209 respectively for almost seven centuries they remained the only universities of the country. Then in the course of less than a hundred years tem more universities were created. It was only in the first half of the 19^th century that further universities were established in Durham and London. These were followed in Manchester and Wales. In the first decade of the 20^th century five provincial universities came into being: Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, and Bristol. These five with Manchester established a new tradition in university education. Each was the product of a large industrial city and was closely linked with its occupations. Each catered mainly for local students and was consequently non-residential. The fees and other expenses were low. Up to 1945 Britain had only 17 universities.

The post-war period witnessed an unprecedented growth of university education in advanced industrial countries recognized as Britain’s main rival in economic power and political prestige. Up to 1964 the number of university students was trebled in France and in the Soviet Union, doubled in Germany, in the United States and Japan. Britain fell far behind these countries and hurriedly took measures to expand university system. In this process three main stages may be distinguished.

1) The emergence of the “Redbrick” universities based on the university colleges. Which now were granted fully independent status: Belfast – Queen’s University, Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Hull, Keele, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham, Reading, Sheffield, Southampton and the Federal University of Wales.

2)   The foundation of new “White brick” later named “plate-glass” universities in 60s: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Lancaster, Stirling, Sussex, Warwick, York, York, and New University of Ulster. Most of them took the names of the counties, where they were located.

3) The elevation of the Colleges of Advanced Technology into full technological universities: Aston, Bath, Bradford, Brunel, City, Herriot-Watt, Loughborough, Salford, Strathclyde and Surrey universities. The Conservatives strongly opposed to granting them the University status.

Scotland boasts four universities: Glasgow, Edinburgh, St. Andrew’s and Aberdeen all founded in the 15^th and 16^th centuries.

Thus since after the 2^nd World War, the number of universities in Great Britain increased from 17 to 47.

Though there were 47 universities in Britain in the second half of the 20^th century the university system might be summarized very briefly: there were two universities Oxford and Cambridge (Oxbridge or Camford) and the rest. Oxbridge is a term that sums up everything that is best in British university life. These universities are privileged. The division between Oxbridge and Redbrick was essentially a class one. The 19^th and early 20^th century universities were built to provide for education for the poorer boys in the provinces and to give technological training.

To extend the provision of higher education within an educational system comparable in standard to that of a university but different in kind and provide economy with highly trained vocationally-oriented young people thus filling the gap between universities and further education, national institutions, known as “polytechnics”, were established. They were sometimes referred to as “comprehensives” of further or higher education. During the early 1970s thirty of the old technical colleges (“techs”), mainly in cities with universities became “polytechnics”. They became study centers that offered a wide range of full-time or part-time courses for students of all ages, known as sandwich vocational courses. (These are courses where substantial periods of full time study alternate with periods of supervised experience in industry.) Those courses lead to diplomas or to degrees awarded by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). In spite of the name polytechnics offered courses in both the arts and the sciences. Thus thirty polytechnics in England and Wales provided a range of higher education courses up to doctoral studies. In Scotland there were similar institutions. The system of universities and polytechnics might be described as a “binary system” as the contrast was great between two sectors – the autonomous university sector and non-autonomous public center of polytechnics which was administered by local authorities.

The basic purpose of the universities has always been to give a first-class education in theories and principles to enable their students to reach a higher standard of creativeness, criticism and flexibility. They teach how to acquire, increase and employ knowledge; they are oriented on research work, on cultivating the minds with who lays the heaviest responsibility for creating the future.

Polytechnics, though having things in common with the universities, differed in the main purpose: their orientation was predominantly vocational. Their emphasis was much more on teaching than research. The biggest among polytechnics was the Central London Polytechnic with 12000 students. The difference in the standard of teaching was reflected in the cost of education, which in polytechnics was more than one third or even half lower.

In spite of the name polytechnics offered courses in both the arts and the sciences. They all aspired to provide the same kind of courses, as universities trying to place equal value on academic and practical work. Time brought changes. The Education Reform act of 1988 established the University Funding Council (UFC), a new body, for disbursing government money to universities. This council may require universities to produce a certain number of qualified people in specific fields. Polytechnics and other larger colleges were made independent of local authorities and funded by UFX in a similar way to universities. These changes raised the standing of the “polys” and finally equaled them to universities in their status. Thus now the number of universities almost doubled in Britain having changed from 47 to 91.

         

OXBRIDGE

Oxford and Cambridge are the Two Great Universities and admission to them is very difficult, the examinations are very severe. But if a fellow gets admission, gets through, gets his degree – he’s made for life!

An Oxford or Cambridge degree is accompanied by all sorts of privileges. And it is no accident that Oxford and Cambridge are familiar known as Oxbridge. This term is regarded in Britain as the sum of everything best in university life. The majority of Prime Ministers, political leaders and leaders in public life are Oxbridge undergraduates. Big business men and all other Bigs of the country mostly belong to the Oxbridge category – a class in itself. And if it comes to getting a job, an Oxonian or Cambrigian will – alas! – Usually get the preference though he may have less brain and knowledge than a redbrick man.

Redbrick universities are 13 major provincial universities opened at the beginning of the 20^th centuries were housed in dreary redbrick buildings which contrasted with the Gothic grey stone of Oxford and Cambridge. Now the more recent ones are all glass and steel buildings. There are some excellent Redbrick universities in Britain, many of which (for example London, Manchester or Bristol) are not in the least inferior to the Grey Stone; in some fields of learning they may be superior. But, there you are, the prejudice is firmly implanted in the minds of great number of people, even to this day.

They create a sense of inferiority in the Redbrick which is a great pity; they create snobbery within these old walls.

To Oxbridge – snobbery certainly exists still, but things are changing. Oxbridge does not gets its intellectual reputation just by snobbery.

The English university was not born overnight; it developed from century to century. Even today Oxford and Cambridge are in the process of changing. Inside the ancient walls of colleges, inside the ancient walls of the college quadrangles (courts) the life and ideas have changed are continuously changing.

Instead of Greek and Latin classics alone, Experimental Physics, Nuclear Energy, Microbiology and such like are studied; instead of Theology and Divinity modern prose and poetry read, and modern politics are hotly debated.

Who were the students in the past? Mostly snobs, the gentlemen scholars with great families and great fortunes behind them. Now have come to Oxbridge – and in small number – the simple youths keen on learning, hard workers, not very rich, sometimes quite needy. During the long summer vacations they advertise in the papers for any kind of work to help them through.

Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest British universities, the most prestigious and privileged universities, not only in great Britain but in the world as well. Founded as early as 1168 (Oxford) and 1209 (Cambridge) these oldest universities in the country preserve historically developed traditions in life and education.

Both universities grew gradually as federations of independent colleges most of which were founded in the 14^th, 15^th and 16^th centuries. Both are cities of fine architecture, represented by Norman, Gothic, Renaissance, classic and modern art.

Oxbridge is not only beauty in stone but it is history in stone and wonderful blending of ancient and modern.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

The beginning of Oxford was probably in the 12^th century. Nobody can be quite sure when exactly first student appeared in the old town. French historians say that during the reign of King Henry II, who spent most of his time in France, the medieval university of Paris, the Sorbonne, was getting too full of English students. So they were forced to leave France, and the first group of ragged youths arrived across the Channel at the beginning of the 12^th century; by 1185 a corporate body of students was formed at Oxford. Why in Oxford not in London? Nobody can tell. Probably because Oxford was best suited geographically, being within easy reach of the ports of London, Bristol and Southampton.

At first students lived in lodgings and attended classes of any master who would accept them.

Soon trouble arose between the citizens of Oxford and students.

The first students that arrived were poor, they were homeless. They needed money, and they borrowed it from the citizens. But money had to be paid back and a high interest was often demanded by money-lenders. Money is often at the root of much trouble and many rows. Then there was the question of privileges; the university was under the protection of pope of Rome and of the kings of England, who founded many of the colleges. The riots and the open fighting between citizens and students continued. And some scholars left Oxford, travelled across country to East Anglia and on the river Cam founded the great rival center of learning, Cambridge.

So the fight between Town (citizens) and Gown (students dressed in the traditional gown) continued. But the great powers – Church and Crown – always sided with the Gown and the privileges of the University grew. The corporation of students grew larger and larger and more powerful every year. The university Government now settled all disputes between Town and Gown. A corporation grew within the corporation: Town and Gown Corporation. The Town was furious. A great arouse in 1355. Both Town and Gown rang their bells to call their supporters; blood was shed on both sides! But, as usual, the Town lost the battle – the Gown was triumphant. And only the 19^th century saw the beginning of true cooperation between Town and Gown.

“What sort of institution was the University in those days?”

It was a curious institution, a most peculiar center of learning. Its scholars were young; they went up to Oxford at thirteen or fourteen, and stayed seven years to take a degree. They were or were supposed to be in preparation for the Church (hence the traditional cap and gown of today). Studies were not regular, or systematic. A master with perhaps a couple of students came to a tavern or went to a field, or chose a convenient street corner. A discussion began. More scholars appeared to debate or to listen. The language of learning was universally Latin, so the students could go from master to master, even from town to town, and sometimes abroad.

What subjects were taught at Oxford at that time? Theology and Logic, Mathematics, some Science. And of course Latin and Greek.

The unruly scholars, often very needy and ragged, were gathered up from taverns and inns, and installed under one roof – the ancient Hall. The earliest colleges grew out of these medieval halls where students lived together with a tutor. The tutor had to teach the others and to receive payment from the founder of the college. A tutorial system was born. The founders were mostly rich bishops, great men connected with the Crown, Church and Court. Later huge fortunes in land and money were given to Oxford by wealthy aristocrats and business firms. Both great Universities, Oxford and Cambridge, amassed great riches in jewellery, gold and silver (Oxford possesses famous Greek antiquities known as the Ashmolean collection), vast and varied collections of rarities, and of course most of all books.

Library. As a matter of fact even today few undergraduates can afford to buy half the books they need. In the Middle Ages to buy books was quite impossible. A library was needed and a library was founded by a ‘Good Duke’ of Gloucester, in the 15^th century. But the books were burned soon after by anti-clerical Protestants. In 1598 a new library was given to the University by Sir Thomas Bodley. Now there is a new Bodleian connected with old one by an underground passage, the eleven floors of it hold five million volumes. A copy of every book and periodical published in Britain is sent to the Bodleian. In addition to the Bodleian, each college has its own library. Some are very old. Merton College still has an ancient chained library. The books, which were very rare in the old times, were still are chained to the shelves and may not be removed even at the request of the Queen (His or Her Majesty). The books are chained in the libraries of all oldest colleges. Every member of the University may become a reader, but the books may not be removed. There is a curious custom: before becoming a reader in Bodley, the undergraduate has to appear, dressed in his gown, and promise to respect the books and not to kindle fire or flame within the library.

Women were not admitted till the end of the 19^th century and it was only in 1920 that they received equal rights as men undergraduates. Now there are five women’s colleges, women-students may belong to most University societies. 

There are very many unions and clubs and societies of which have become famous in Britain and beyond. For example the Union, the Debating Club, The Oxford University Dramatic Society, the big political societies, the Sailing Club and so on. One could go on for hours enumerating them. Eating clubs, drinking clubs, singing clubs, etc. etc., not to mention the sports clubs!

Sports, as no doubt you know, are in favour at Oxford. Almost every known form of sport is found at Oxford; colleges have their own playing fields, sport clubs, they play against each other, they also play against Cambridge colleges. What are the most important games? Rowing, rowing and again rowing. The others are Rugger, Cricket, Football and Running. To become a winner as getting a degree – at least so they say.

 

BRITISH UNIVERSITIES

British universities are open to everyone. The university makes you an offer; for example it will give a place if an applicant gets at least one grade A and two Bs. The offer depends on market forces; for popular, high-prestige courses, the university will ask very good A-level results.

The number of students on a particular course (for example, Economics at Cardiff University) is strictly limited. The system does not allow students to follow full-time courses in a casual way, having a job or living in another town as they study. Students are quiet closely monitored, and have to see their teachers regularly. Consequently, drop-out and failure rates are low.

The negative side of the system was that, compared with other countries, a rather small percentage of British school-leavers actually went on to university. But there has been a dramatic improvement; the number has doubled over the last 20 years. One explanation of this is that in the 1980s many polytechnics and higher education colleges were given university status. As a result, many cities now have two universities – an old one and a new one. For example, in Bristol there is Bristol University and the University of the West of England; in Oxford there is Oxford University and Oxford Brookes University.

Officially, all universities in the country are equal in status. But they differ greatly in reputation and public image. In general, the older a university is, the higher its status. So the most prestigious are the ancient ones – Oxford and Cambridge – followed by long-established ones such as London, Manchester and Edinburgh.

Some of this is just based on tradition and snobbery. In fact, each university has strengths and weaknesses, and sensible students make their choices according to their particular needs and priorities.

About half of British students go away to university, rather than attend the one closest to home. This is an expensive thing to do; the government used to give grants (money to live on during studies), whereas now students have to borrow money or get their parents to pay. But still many students find that combining study and family life is impossible.

British universities are very popular with overseas students. There are about 70,000 – mostly from Africa, the Arab world and Far Eastern countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. The Erasmus programme arranges exchanges (from three months to one year) in 24 countries including all the members of the European Union. In fact, the UK is the most popular destination, receiving over 25 per cent of all Erasmus students.  

           

STUDENT’S LIFE

On first coming up as a fresher, the student has rooms in his college allotted to him. Rent and size of rooms vary, but as a rule he has a comfortable sitting-room and a separate bedroom.

A student who takes his work seriously will read or attend lectures from 9 (or 9.30) till the midday meal (lunch) at 1, then take vigorous exercise of some sort on the playing fields or the river till tea at about 4.30 or 5, then do some more work till dinner at 7 and after dinner, perhaps attend a meeting of some college society, or spend a social evening with friends or get some more reading done. Once a week, at least, he will spend an hour with his tutor, who will criticize and discuss his work. Undisciplined students are fined or “grated”, that is, not allowed to go out for a given time, or “sent down” for good, or rusticated (dismissed for term).

Much of the student’s time is given to working in the library. Each college has its own library but Oxford is famous for its Bodleian Library – one of the oldest and most important libraries in the country. It is copyright library (has the right to claim a copy of all British publications), second in importance to the British Library.

Socializing is the important part of the student’s life. The universities have over a hundred societies and clubs, enough for every interest one could imagine. Apart from the university clubs, each college has anything up to 20 societies, some of them of great antiquity. These are only open to members of the college and may be very expensive. Many are dining or drinking clubs, others are essay societies, debating clubs and so on.

While many evenings are usually devoted to attending societies, afternoon are given up to numerous sports. One of the most famous sporting events in Oxbridge is the Boat Racing annually held at Easter time. The teams of oxford and Cambridge, each consisting of eight rowers, row four and a half miles along the river Thames in London. Crowds of people line the banks to watch the race and thousands more watch it on TV.

The year is divided into three terms of only eight weeks each: Michaelmas Term (autumn term), Hillary term (winter term), and Trinity term (spring term) and long summer vacation lasting four months from June till mid October. A long holiday is a relic from medieval times when scholars had to bring in the harvest. Nowadays vacations are regarded not as the rest time, but the time for independent work. Students are given tasks in reading, studying literature, writing essays.

In his first term the student decides in which final honour schools he intends to read. There are 14 from which to choose. Having made his decision he is put under a tutor who directs his studies through his academic career, which may be 3-4 years, according to the subject which the student is reading.

After 2-3 terms the student takes his first exams prelims. It is a first public examination and it is a test to see if he is capable of taking “finals”. He may have more than one shot at prelims but if he fails constantly his college may request him to make room for a more able student. Prelims over, he reads for finals. In between are collections – term exams at the end of each term and mods 9moderations) – at the end of the 5^th term. It is the first public exam for the Bachelor’s degree in some subjects. Final honour schools (“finals”, “schools”) include writing 11 three-hours papers and also viva voice exam which may be exhaustive or merely formal. In two months the undergraduate learns his fate is awarded his degree of Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS). In Scotland “Master” is used for first degree. Oxbridge, as well as most universities, award degrees in 5 categories: First Class Honours (only 5%), Upper second, Lower Second, Third Class and Pass. The First Class Honours are of considerable prestige and professional value. The Pass degree standard is a safety-net, its standard is very low even in Oxbridge.

The degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) is given for a thesis, which is an original contribution to knowledge. It is common for both humanities and science: PhD in Physics, English, History, Chemistry, etc.    

 

OPEN UNIVERSITY

The most revolutionary of all the post-war developments in university education was the establishment of the Open University. It was initiated in 1963 by Harold Wilson (Labour Party leader and Premier-Minister) but opened in 1971. It is a non-residential university, which provides different courses using a combination of TV and Radio broadcasts, (correspondence (distance) courses, personal tuition, summer schools, a network of viewing and listening centers. Its fees are not high. No formal academic qualifications were required at first to register for these courses, but there were so many applicants that preparatory tests had to be introduced. So now students are admitted on a “first come, first served” basis. The students are of all ages and come from very different backgrounds. Some improve their qualifications, others, like retired people or mothers of grow up children, obtained the time to do something they have always wanted to, but had no opportunity. Each student of the Open University gets the help and support of his own tutor (or counselor) with whom he meets and correspondences regularly and whom he can telephone in case of any difficulty. There are meetings at which students get to know each other forming “self-help” groups. These groups meet in each other’s homes to discuss the texts and assignments, to help, support and stimulate each other. The nearest approach to the ordinary university life is summer schools. Which both students and local tutors attend with great enthusiasm? It is here that most the students “find their feet”.

The standards of the Open University degrees are the same as those of other universities. The degrees are awarded on a system of credits for each courses completed. It takes six or eight years to get degree. Only 1 per cent of its registered members get qualification degree or diploma. Approximately one in every 16 students graduating from the British universities is from the Open University.

Most universities including Polytechnics find themselves financial pressure to seek supplementary funding from private sources. Commercial companies are likely to encourage the areas of study of immediate interest to them. But pure research, which accounts for significant advances, may suffer. 

 

FURTHER EDUCATION

Not all students study full-time at university or college. Many people combine their studies with work. Some companies release their staff for training one or two days or for two months a year. Larger companies often have their own in-house training schemes.

British government is very enthusiastic about different training schemes working in the system of further education because so few people can get education at the universities.

Further education is a broad term to cover education beyond secondary stage. It includes vocational education, non-vocational education, recreational evening classes and adult education. Further education colleges have strong ties with commerce and industry.

The most further education establishments are either maintained or aided from public funds, so the tuition fees are moderate. Some students are paid different awards and scholarships to help them to cover tuition fees.

The courses in further education are different: full time, sandwich (six months of full time study in technical college of supervised experience in industry), block release (on similar principles, but with shorter periods at technical college a week during working hours).

Evening classes. There are also many business courses such as tourism, manufacturing, art and design and secretarial courses such as shorthand typing, book-keeping and so on. For unemployed there are two forms of training schemes: employment training for people who have been out of work for a long time and Youth training schemes for school-leavers who cannot find a job.

Adult education includes courses of non-vocational education for people over 18. Many of the courses are practical, but there are widespread opportunities for academic study. It was in 1873 when Extension courses were first provided by Cambridge University. Now all the Universities have Extra-mural Departments with its director and staff.

In London there is the National Institute of Adult Education which serves as a center of information, research, publication, cooperation and consultation for adult education.

In 1973 the Technician Education Council was set up for developing a unified system of courses of further education. The courses are of two levels (ordinary and higher, junior and senior). After completing junior courses (or Youth Training Schemes) students get ordinary National Certificate (ONC) or Greater National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQ). After completing senior courses (advance courses) which demand two more years, one gets the Higher National Diploma which approaches the standard of a pass degree of the university Open University.

LECTURE 8