Part II

Chaucer, Geoffrey (1340?—1400). Poet. Born in London, son of John Chaucer, a prosperous wine-merchant, and his wife Agnes. He was in the household of Prince Lionel, Duke of Clarence, by 1357, fought in France 1359—1360, was taken prisoner and ransomed. During the 1360s he probably studied at the Inner Temple and may have visited Spain. About 1366 he married Philippa, whose sister Katherine Swynford was mistress and later third wife of Lionel's brother, John of Gaunt. An esquire of the royal household in 1367, in 1368 he went to France and in 1372—1373 to Italy (where he may have met Petrarch) on diplomatic missions which brought him into contact with continental and Renaissance culture. He had probably begun to write with a translation (some of which survives) of the great French model of psychological allegory, Le Roman de la Rose: but his earliest certainly dateable work is The Book of the Duchess, an elegy for John of Gaunt's beloved first wife Blanche, who died in 1369. Italian influence appears in The House of Fame (?1379—1380). Living in London over Aldgate in 1374—1386, he was first Controller of the customs for wool, and in 1382 also Controller of the petty custom on wines, with a permanent deputy. In 1386 he lost these posts, but represented Kent in Parliament. During these years he translated the classic medieval work on free will and predestination, time and eternity, Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, and wrote a number of works, including Troilus and Criseyde and The Parliament of Fowls, and some drafts of stories later to appear in The Canterbury Tales — whose prologue he seems to have begun in 1387, when it was probably first conceived as a single work. In 1387 he was in trouble for debt, but in 1389 he was appointed (perhaps by the direct influence of King Richard II, who assumed control of affairs in that year) Clerk of the King's Works, a post in which he was active, and in the performance of which he was assaulted and twice robbed. In 1390, he composed for his 10-year-old son Lewis (a student at Oxford) a scientific work, his Astrolabe. In 1391 he resigned the Clerkship, but was made deputy forester in the royal forest of Petherton in Somerset. He was in some trouble for debt between then and his death, but also received a number of grants from Richard II and from John of Gaunt's son Henry IV. He probably died on 25 October 1400, in a house leased by him in the gardens of Westminster Abbey, and he was buried in the Abbey. His son Thomas was also later a distinguished public servant.

Chaucer's interests were all-embracing: he knew the world and read omnivorously. Among his personal friends were such great men as John of Gaunt, poets such as the Frenchman Eustace Deschamps, John Gower and the philosopher-poet Ralph Strode. His face in a contempora­ry portrait seems shrewd, benevolent and quizzical. He portrays himself in his books as shy, naive, a lover of solitude and daisies, bookish and unhappy in love and marriage. But, though this may represent an aspect of him, the very techniques he uses in self-mockery reveal un­derlying it a sophisticated artist, a subtle psychologist and a brilliant thinker and master of words. To understand the irony with which he treats himself is to begin to appreciate the humility, sympathy and humour with which he treats the rest of humanity, and indeed the whole universe. As in other books of his time (e. g. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) this vision has a religious basis in the theology of penitence and self-knowledge: and it issues ultimately in a kind of humour of the sublime.

(From: The Penguin Companion to Literature. — Harmonsworth: Penguin Books Ltd, 1971.)

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§ 7. Literature of the Renaissance (end of the 15^th – beginning of the 17^th century)

In the 15^th – 16^th centuries capitalist relations began to develop in Europe. The former townspeople became the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie fought against feudalism because it held back the development of capitalism.

The decay of feudalism and the development of capitalist relations were followed by a great rise in the cultural life of Europe. There was an attempt at creating a new culture, which would be free from the limitations of the feudal ideology of the Middle Ages. The epoch was characterized by a thirst for knowledge and discoveries, by a powerful development of individuality.

The invention of the printing press contributed to the development of culture in all European countries. Universities stopped being citadels of religious learning and turned into centers of humanist study. There was a revival of interest in the ancient culture of Greece and Rome ("Renaissance" is French for "rebirth").

The progressive ideology of the Renaissance was Humanism, Human life, the happiness of people and the belief in man's abilities became the main subjects in fine arts and literature. The power of the Church over men's minds was defeated, The Renaissance gave mankind such great men as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, Petrarch and Durer, Cervantes and Shakespeare.

English humanism was both anti-feudal and anti-bourgeoisie. It was directed against the ignorance and oppression of feudal against the grabbing and self-interested character of the bourgeoisie. It was the ideology of the most progressive people of the epoch.

These ideas were best expressed by the first English humanist Tomas More (1478-1535) in his book Utopia, which is the Creek for "nowhere", is a story about an imaginary island where all people are equal and free.

More's Utopia marked the first period of English humanist literature. The second period which lasted from the middle of the 16^th century up to the beginning of the 17^th century, saw the flourishing of the English drama. The theatre because a favourite amusement of people, especially in towns. At the end of the century there were about 10 theatres in London. The theatres performed.the plays written by the English dramatists of the time. Among the playwrights of the period were John Lyly, Robert Creene, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson and others. The most outstanding dramatist of the period, as well as of all times, was William Shakespeare.

1. Topical vocabulary:

belief	вера	to grab	схватить
discover	открытие	ancient	древний
stage	сцена	to express	показывать
subject	тема, содержание	to imagine	воображать
art	искусство	amusement	развлечение
to direct against	направлять против	to perform	играть, исполнять

2. Find in the text the following word-combinations and translate the sentences which include them:

capitalist relations; the former townspeople; the printing press; citadels of religious learning; the belief in man's abilities; the power over men's minds; to give mankind; grabbing and self-interested character; to mark the period; to see the flourishing; to become a favorite amusement; to perform the plays.

3. Use the necessary prepositions:

To fight __________ feudalism; to hold __________ the development of capitalism; to be followed __________ a great rise in the cultural life; an attempt __________ creating a new culture; a thirst __________ knowledge and discoveries; to contribute __________ the development __________ culture; to turn __________ centers __________ humanist study; the main subjects __________ fine arts and literature; to be the ideology __________ the most progressive people __________ the epoch; the most outstanding dramatist __________ the period.

4. Match English and Russian equivalents:

1.	Бывшие горожане	1.	The flourishing of the English drama
2.	Главный объект в литературе и искусстве	2.	Ancient culture of Greece and Rome
3.	Вера в возможности человека	3.	The invention of the printing press
4.	Прогрессивная идеология эпохи Возрождения	4.	The most outstanding dramatist of the period, as well as of all times
5.	Невежество и притеснения со стороны феодалов	5.	The ignorance and oppression of feudals
6.	Мощный толчок к развитию личности	6.	The main subject in literature and fine arts
7.	Самый выдающийся драматург эпохи, как и всех времен	7.	The progressive ideology of the Renaissance
8.	Расцвет английской драмы	8.	The former townspeople
9.	Античная культура Греции и Рима	9.	The belief in man's abilities
10.	Изобретение печатного станка		Powerful development of individuality

5. Use the appropriate antonyms instead of underlined words and word-combinations:

1. In the 15^th – 16^th centuries capitalists relations began to decline in Europe.

2. The rise of feudalism was followed by a great decay in the cultural life of Europe.

3. There was an attempt at creating an ancient culture which would be oppressed with the limitations of the feudal ideology of the Renaissance.

4. Universities of Medieval Europe turned into citadels of religious learning.

5. The power of the Church over the men's minds took force.

6. English humanism was directed against the education and freedom given to people by feudals.

7. It was the ideology of the most backward people of the epoch.

8. "Utopia" is a story about a real island where all people are unequal and oppressed.

9. The theatre became a hard work for people, especially in the rural areas.

10. The epoch was characterized by a total absence of interest for knowledge and discoveries.

11. Thoughts about death, the sorrows of people and belief in man's misfortune became the main subjects in fine arts and literature.

6. Choose the right variant:

1. In the 15^th – 16^th centuries capitalist relations _______ to develop in Europe.

a) begins; b) had begun; c) began