What can you say about the conveniences in the city?

 

Text 3

THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Part II.

 

The ruins of Mohenjo-Daro tell us a great deal about the people who lived in this luxurious city, and, as they afford us the first comprehensive view of the culture and civilization of India, we must note the essential features of the social, economic and religious condition.

Wheat was the principle article of food, but barley and palm-date were also familiar. They also used mutton, pork, fish and eggs.

Cotton fabrics were in common use, but wool was also used, evidently for warm textiles. Ornaments were worn by both men and women of all classes. Necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were worn by men and women; and girdles, nose-studs, ear-rings and anklets by women only. There was great variety in the shape and design of these ornaments, and some of them are of singular beauty. These ornaments were made of gold, silver, ivory, copper and both precious and semi-precious stones like jade, crystal, agate and lapis lazuli.

The earthenware vessels, of rich variety, were made with the potter’s wheel and were either plain or painted. In rare cases they were glazed. Vessels of copper, bronze, silver and porcelain were known, though very rarely used. It is important to bear in mind that not a scrap of iron has been found, and that metal was obviously unknown.

Among other articles of domestic use the following ones may be mentioned: spindles and spindle whorls made of baked earth, porcelain and shell; needles and combs, made of bone or ivory; axes, chisels, knives, sickles, fishhooks and razors made of copper and bronze; small cubical blocks of hard stone, probably used as weights.

The children’s toys included, in addition to familiar articles, small wheeled carts and chairs, and we may easily infer that these were used in actual life. The discovery of dice-pieces shows the prevalence of that game.

The remains of skeletons prove that the humped bull, the buffalo, sheep, elephant and camel were domesticated. There are some doubts about the goose. The carvings of dogs on children’s toys show that that animal was also familiar.

These include axes, spears, daggers, maces and slings, with comparatively fewer specimens of bows and arrows. The absence of swords is significant, shields, helmets or any other defensive armour is conspicuous by their absence. The weapons of war, all offensive in character, are usually made of copper and bronze, though a few stone implements have also been found.

More than five hundred seals have been discovered. These are made of terra cotta and small in size. Some contain fine representations of animal figures – both mythical and real – engraved on them. All of them contain a short record inscribed in a sort of pictorial writing which still remains undeciphered.

The representations of animals carved on these seals often exhibit a high degree of excellence. A few stone images found at Harappa recall the finish and excellence of Greek statues and show a high degree of development on the sculptor’s art.

The seals were most probably used in connection with trade. Indeed there is abundant evidence that the people traded not only with other parts of India but also with many countries of Asia. It is certain that they secured tin, copper and precious stones from beyond India.

Some aspects of the art and industry of the early Indus people have been dealt with above. Agriculture must have played an important part in the daily life of the common people, and among other things wheat, barley and cotton were cultivated at a large scale. Among the industrial classes, the potter, the weaver, the carpenter, the mason, the blacksmith, the goldsmith, the jeweler, the ivory-worker and the stone-cutter were the most important.

A great advance on technical knowledge is indicated by the potter’s wheel, kiln-burnt brick and the casting and alloy of metals. A high aesthetic sense is indicated by the beautiful designs of ornaments, the superb relief figures of seals and the execution of fine stone statues.

The objects found at Mohenjo-Daro also teach us something about the religious faiths and beliefs of the people. The cult of the Divine Mother seems to have been widely prevalent, and many figurines of this Mother-Goddess have come to light. This cult may not be exactly the same as the Sakti worship of later days, but the fundamental ideas appear to be the same – the belief in a female energy as the source of all creation.

Along with this, there was also a male-god who has been identifies as the prototype of the God Siva. On one particular seal, he seems to be represented as seated in the Yoga posture, surrounded by animals. He has three visible faces, and two horns on two sides of a tall head-dress. The identification of the male-god with Siva is further strengthened by the discovery of stone pieces which look exactly like the form in which Siva is almost universally worshipped today.

It is obvious, therefore, that modern Hinduism was indebted to a great extend to the Indus valley culture. We must therefore hold that there is an organic relationship between the ancient culture of the Indus valley and the Hinduism of to-day.

 

PHONETIC EXERCISES

 

I. Pronounce the following words paying attention to the way of pronunciation of the stressed vowels.

//\/ culture, mutton, humped, buffalo, cult

/):/ afford, pork, ornament, por celain /slin/, s w ord /-/, pictorial

/e/ comprehensive, essential, necklace, precious, vessel, skeleton, weapon, unde b ted /-/

/ai/ item, desi gn /n/, ivory, k nife /-/

/i:/ wh eat /w/

/a:/ barley, pa l m /-/, armlet, armour

/i:/ fillet, crystal, spindle, chisel, sickle, implements, images

/:/ girdle, earthenware

/æ/ ‘agate, lapis, ‘lazuli /’læzu’lai/

/)/ potter, obviously, corollary

/ei/ glazed, razor, wei gh t /-/, faith, jade

/ai/ iron

/ Е / bear

/ou/ com b /-/, bone, bow, abode

/u/ bull

/i/ spear

/ju:/ lu x urious /gz/

 

I. Read the following proper names correctly

Mohenjo-Daro, Greek, Harappa, India, Asia, Divine Mother, Mother Goddess, Sakti, Siva, Yoga, Indus.

 

VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR AND TEXT EXERCISES

 

I. Analyze the structure of the following words, denote the parts of speech and translate the words.

luxurious prevalence visible

evidently dagger culture

domestic prevalent

 

I. Read the sentences translating the Russian parts into English.

(Развалины) of Mohenjo-Daro tell us a great deal about the people who lived in this (роскошный город).

We must note (существенные черты) of the (социальных, экономических и религиозных) conditions.

(Украшения) were worn by both (мужчины и женщины всех классов).

These (украшения) were made of (золота, серебра, слоновой кости) and both (драгоценных и полудрагоценных камней).

(Глиняные сосуды) were made with (гончарный круг) and were either (бесцветные или расписанные).

(Необходимо помнить) that not a scrap of iron was founded.

(Остатки скелетов) prove that some animals (были одомашнены)

Some (таблички) were (найдены).

A few stone (образов) found at Harappa (напоминают) Greek statues.

(Культ) of the Divine Mother seems to have been (широко преобладающим).

We can learn a lot about (вере и верованиях) of the people.

 

I. Translate into Russia.

Barley, palm-date, mutton, pork, fish, eggs, cotton fabric, wool, warm textile, ornaments, necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger-rings, bangles, girdles, nose-studs, ear-rings, anklets, jade, crystal, agate, lapis lazuli, porcelain, spindles, spindle whorls, baked earth, shell, needles, combs, axe, chisel, knife, sickle, fishhook, razor, dice-pieces, bull, buffalo, sheep, elephant, camel, goose, spear, dagger, mace, sling, bow, arrow, sword, shield, helmet, defensive armour, seal, terra cotta, wheat, a potter, a weaver, a carpenter, a mason, a blacksmith, a goldsmith, a jeweler, an ivory-worker, a stone-cutter, potter’s wheel, casting, an alloy, faith, Mother-Goddess, a male-god.

 

I. Choose the sentences with Passive Voice denote the tense and translate the sentences.

1. Wool was also used.

2. Ornaments were worn by both men and women of all classes.

3. Not a scrap of iron has been found.

4. Spindles and spindle whorls may be mentioned among other articles of domestic use.

5. Wheat was the principle article of food.

6. More than five hundred seals have been discovered.

7. Agriculture must have played an important part in the daily life of the common people.

8. The three faces of the figure may not be unconnected with the later conception.

 

I. Finish the sentences in accordance with the content of the text.

1. The ruins tell us about …

a) the architecture of the city b) the people who lived in the city

c) the wars that people led at that time

1. The principle article of food was…

a) wheat b) mutton c) barley

1. Ornaments were worn …

a) by men b) by women c) both by men and women

1. The archeologists didn’t find …

a) a scrap of bronze b) a scrap of iron c) a scrap of metal

1. The domesticated animals were …

a. the humped bull, the buffalo, the sheep, the elephant and the camel

b. the humped bull, the buffalo, the sheep, the elephant and the goose

c. the humped bull, the buffalo, the sheep, the elephant, the camel and the dog

1. The religious objects teach us …

a. about the worship of Mother Goddess only

b. about the worship of Mother Goddess and the God Siva

c. about the worship of mother Goddess and some male god

 

I. Find in the text the passage which tells us about ornaments that people wore. Read it and translate.

 

VII. Answer the following questions.

1. What types of food did the inhabitants of the city have?

2. What animals were domesticated by the people of the valley?

3. What kinds of weapon were found and what was their character?

4. In what kind of writing were the inscriptions on the seals made?

5. What occupations were people busy in?

6. What can you tell about the religion of these people?

 

I. Render the text.

 

Text 4

THE CELTS

The oldest surviving references to the Celts are very brief and purely casual. At the time of Herodotus, the Greeks recognized the Celts to be a major barbarian people living west and north of the Western Mediterranean, and beyond the Alps.

It is in fact clear that throughout the four centuries from Herodotus to Julius Caesar, the Celts were recognizable to their southern literate neighbours by their characteristic way of life, their political organization and their appearance; factors, that are general and may easily be misinterpreted.

With regard to the actual name itself, the Greeks wrote it down as “Keltoi”, having received it orally from the native pronunciation. Except for the use of this name in a local tribal context in Spain it seems elsewhere to have been used in a comprehensive way to include tribes of different names, but this evidence is based on much later sources than Herodotus. The name “Celts” was never applied to the peoples of Britain and Ireland by ancient writers so far as is known, and there is no evidence that the natives of Britain and Ireland ever used this name of themselves. This, of course, does not exclude some insular dwellers from having been Celts, but the case must rest on other kinds of evidence.

The next point to be clarified is how it can be shown that the Celts of antiquity actually spoke tongues related to the surviving languages that in philological terminology are described as Celtic. This can be most readily demonstrated through the Greek and Roman Classics in the names of chieftains and tribes, and in particular words or terms recorded as belonging to the Celts. This body of linguistic material falls within the Celtic branch of the Indo-European language family, and in many cases the anciently recorded words can be shown to have survived in the medieval and modern languages of the Celtic group.

There are three other primary sources which provide information concerning the language of the ancient Celts. In the first place there is the existence of a large number of inscriptions incorporating Celtic words and names, but mainly written in Latin, or more rarely in Greek. These were inscribed on altars and other monuments in the Celtic regions incorporated within the Roman Empire, and they have been found in places as far apart as Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, in Asia Minor, in Portugal and in Hungary. The second source is akin. It is numismatic, but much more restricted in space. This source is particularly valuable on account of coins inscribed with names, linguistically Celtic that can be shown on archeological and historical grounds to have been issued by Celtic kings or tribes. The third line of evidence has to do with the place-names. These are as often names of rivers or other topographical points as names of actual settlements or strongholds. The distributional evidence of Celtic place-names in Western and Central Europe conforms closely with the regions in which the Celts are known to have been strongest, and in which their influence lasted longest. There is a great deal of interpenetration and borrowing of Celtic, Germanic, Slavonic and other place-names, but this is a highly philological matter, and a reliable map of Celtic place-names in Europe has yet to be produced. All that one can venture to say here is that apart from the British Isles, Celtic place-names have survived widely in France, Spain and Northern Italy, and more sparsely between the Danube and the Alps eastward to Belgrade. In North-West Germany they are common on the Rhine, and extend to the Weser, perhaps even to the Elbe. It will be understood, of course, that place-name distribution as it survives can only give a partial picture of the original distribution of the Celtic tribes. Many factors may have contributed either to survival or to the complete oblivion of this kind of evidence.

The archeological approach may also be introduced with reference to the problem of the Celts.

Strictly speaking, archeology is the study of the material remains of human activity in the past. It may be directed to the material culture of fully historical peoples or periods, or to periods and regions beyond the range of literate civilizations. The aim of modern archeological research is to recover to the greatest possible degree, and to interpret, the life of ancient communities rather than to achieve mere classification of objects and monuments. It follows, then, that in regard to the Celts, as they emerge from the kinds of evidence so far discussed, an archeological identity must first be shown to exist for the centuries between Herodotus and Julius Caesar, who stand here as the upper and lower fixed points in the historical frame-work. Archeology does in fact show a great material culture for these centuries, which extends over the whole area already indicated. Vestiges of barbaric civilization which have been discovered are firmly linked with known Celtic tribes in Northern Italy from the fourth century B.C., in Southern France from the second, and elsewhere within the extending Roman Empire, from the first century B.C.

 

PHONETIC EXERCISES

I. Read the following words paying attention to the rules of pronunciation of the stressed vowels.

/ai/ surviving, recognize, tribal, applied, primary, provide

/ju/ purely

/æ/ casual, clarif y /ai/, n u mismatic /ju:/, val u able /ju:/

/ E / rarely

/au/ throughout, account, ground

//\/ southern, tongue

/i/ appearance, mere

/:/ misinterpreted, concern, interpret, emerge, research

/)/ orally

/e/ comprehensive, evidence

/):/ source, alter

/i/ antiquity, particular, akin, issued, influence, oblivion, ins u lar /ju:/

/u:/ through

/i:/ chieftain

/ai/ empire, reliable

/ei/ interpenetration, civil i zation /ai/

/a:/ sparsely, barbarism

 

I. Read the following words paying attention to the way of pronunciation of the consonants and the combinations of consonants

/t∫/ cen t ury, ac t ual, ven t ure

/k/ C elt, C eltic, ar ch eology

/f/ ph ilological

/dζ/ terminolo g y, archeolo g y, philolo g y

/∫/ an c ient, spe c ialized, par ti al

 

I. Read the words, mind the stress

a. with the stress on the first syllable

reference, elsewhere, evidence, clarifies, altar, valuable, influence, literate, monument, follow, area

a. with the stress on the second syllable

surviving, throughout, antiquity, recorded, existence, empire, akin, particularly, reliable, oblivion, identity, within

a. with the stress on the third syllable

comprehensive, misinterpreted, distribution, contributed

 

I. Read the following proper names correctly

Celt, Herodotus, Greek, Western Mediterranean, the Alps, Julius Caesar, Spain, Ireland, Roman Empire, Indo-European, Latin, Asia Minor, Portugal, Hungary, Hadrian’s Wall, Western and Central Europe, Germanic, Slavonic, British Isles, France, Northern Italy, Danube, Belgrade, North-West Germany, Rhine, Weser, Elbe

 

VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR AND TEXT EXERCISES

I. Find in the text the compound nouns and translate them.

 

II. Analyze the structure of the following words, define the parts of speech. Translate the words.

purely anciently interpenetration

recognizable inscription venture

antiquity sparsely reliable

III. Make up pairs of synonyms.

a. general, neighbour, casual, evident, exclude

b. nearby, obvious, main, except, occasion

 

IV. Translate the following into Russian.

A large number of the inscriptions, coins, historical grounds, actual settlements or strongholds, oblivion, to emerge from, the historical framework, to be inscribed on, except for, so far as is known, purely casual, philological terminology, literate neighbours, some insular dwellers, incorporating Celtic words and names

 

I. Translate the following into English.

В отношении, насколько известно, за исключением, становится ясным, вожди и племена, археологические и исторические данные, выпускать, взаимопроникновение, выживание, чисто случайно, самое могущественное племя варваров, в течение четырех веков, который можно узнать.

 

I. Read the following sentences, find the predicates and define the tense-voice forms. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. This evidence is based on much later sources than Herodotus.

a) Present Indefinite Active b) Present indefinite Passive c) Present Continuous

Active

1. The name “Celtic” was never applied to the peoples of Britain and Ireland by ancient writers.

a) Past Indefinite Active b) Past Perfect Passive c) Past Indefinite

Passive

3. This body of linguistic material falls within the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family.

a) Present Continuous Active b) Present Indefinite Active c) Present Perfect

Active

4. In the first there is the existence of a large number of inscriptions incorporating Celtic words and names.

a) Present Continuous Active b) Present Continuous Passive c) Present Indefinite

Active

1. The vestiges of barbaric civilization are firmly linked with known Celtic tribes in Northern Italy from the fourth century BC.

a) Present Indefinite Passive b) Present Indefinite Active

c) Present Continuous Passive

 

I. Arrange the points of the plan according to the content of the text.

1. Three primary sources which provide information concerning the language of the ancient Celts.

2. The archeological approach (the aim of modern archeological research in regard to the Celts)

3. The third primary source of the language of the Celts.

4. The second primary source concerning the language of the Celts

5. The first primary source dealing with the language of the Celts.

6. The Celts of antiquity actually spoke the tongues related to the surviving languages.

7. Factors that are general and may easily be misinterpreted.

 

I. Find the passage where it is told about the connections between the Celtic language and surviving languages, read it and translate.

 

I. Answer the following questions.

1. What tribes were considered to be the most powerful?

2. Was the name “Celts” ever applied to the peoples of Britain and Ireland? By whom?

3. How can it be shown that the Celts of antiquity spoke tongues that in philological terminology are described as Celtic?

4. What kind of inscription are still existing?

5. Where were they inscribed on?

6. What source is particularly valuable? Give the details.

7. In what regions did the Celts influence last longest?

8. In what part have Celtic place-names survived apart from the British Isles?

 

Text 5

BRITAIN AND THE COMING OF THE ROMANS

By 55 BC Caesar had conquered all Gaul – i.e., roughly what we know as modern France and Belgium. In the summer of that year his armies had reached and even crossed the Rhine into Germany. They now looked from the harbour at Boulogne to the white cliffs across the Channel. What made Caesar to conquer Britain? It was not a wealthy country, nor was it powerful enough to threaten Roman Gaul. Its climate was damp and unattractive. But as long as Britain remained free, discontented Gauls could escape there and plot rebellion in exile, and rebellion was a real danger to the Roman power in Gaul.

Britain was also a centre of the religion on of the Druids. In the Celtic tribes of Britain and Gaul these priests had a position of authority almost equal to that of the kings and chieftains. The religion of the Druids was mysterious and sinister. Their sacred places were not temples but groves of trees, usually oak-trees. Among these oaks the Druids performed magic rites designed to ensure the fertility of fields and flocks and success in the battle for the tribe. Sacrifices were very important in such ceremonies and the Romans believed that the Druids practised human sacrifices. At any rate, perhaps because of the horror of human sacrifices, and certainly because of resentment at the Druids’ influence on both sides of the Channel, the Romans were anxious to root out the Druids, and the Druids in return did all they could to foster hatred of the Romans.

Caesar’s first expedition to Britain in 55 BC – an expedition consisting of about 10,000 men carried in nearly 100 ships – was not meant to be a full-scale invasion. It was designed to prepare the way for an invasion in the following years by exploring the ground, by finding suitable harbours and landing-places, and by testing the Britons’ tactics and fighting spirit in battle. Caesar landed against stiff opposition on a beach between Walmer and Deal. The landing itself was successful, but the Roman ship captains, coming from the Mediterranean, were not used to the tides and the ways of the sea round the coast of Britain. They had beached some of their ships on an exposed coast and left the rest at anchor a little way out to sea. On the night of the full moon, when the spring tides were at their height, a storm suddenly sprang up. The beached ships were filled with water and the ones at anchor battered. Many were totally lost.

Caesar was now in a very difficult position. He had to get his men back to Gaul, for they had no provisions for the winter. Not only was his fleet wrecked, but the British chiefs, seeing his trouble and the small size of his army, were beginning to attack him again. Caesar did not lose his nerve. He had the least damaged ships refitted with timber from the wrecks, and then enjoyed the good fortune of a spell of calm weather before the autumn storms. His army returned safely to Gaul, but though he had successfully accomplished most of his immediate objects, he had not found a harbour.

For the invasion of 54 BC Caesar mobilized an enormous force. Forty thousand men were carried across in nearly six hundred transports, equipped this time with oars as well as sails. They landed on the same sort of open beach that had proved so disastrous the year before, but this time there was no resistance. Caesar hurried inland to find the enemy, and defeated them. While he was away, his fleet lying at anchor off the open beach was again almost wrecked by a storm. Caesar had to return to his ships. They were hauled up on the shore above the high-water mark and surrounded with a rampart to protect them from attack. This took up ten days of the short campaigning season, and during that time Cassivellaunus, by agreement with the southern chiefs, took over control of all the British forces. Caesar soon realized that he was up against a skillful and dangerous enemy. He determined to pursue Cassivellaunus to his capital, though he did not yet know where the capital was. Pressing on into unknown territory, he forced a crossing of the Thames, north of which lay the kingdom of Cassivellaunus. Caesar now found his rout deserted. His enemy had driven away all the inhabitants and their herds and with a force of four thousand chariots shadowed Caesar’s army as it advanced, preventing his men from collecting food. For the Roman leader the situation was becoming increasingly difficult.

Cassivelaunus, however, had other enemies besides the Romans. The most important of these was the non-Belgic tribe of the Trinovantes, who lived in what are now Essex and Suffolk. At this point a delegation came to Caesar from the Trinovantes. They offered their submission to Caesar and help in the form of provision. Moreover, they were able to tell him the whereabouts of the Belgic capital – which he soon stormed. But he was to go no further. News of a rebellion in Gaul sent him hastening back to his ships. In token of conquest he made Cassivelaunus promise to pay tribute to Rome and refrain from attacking the Tirnovantes. But as he set sail for France, he must have known that his invasion had achieved no lasting results.

 

PHONETIC EXERCISES

I. Read the following words aloud paying attention to the pronunciation of the stressed vowels.

/)/ con quer /k/, horror

/ /\ / roughly, country, enough, among, trouble, above, southern

/a:/ harbour

/au/ powerful

/e/ threaten, discontented, rebellion, ex i le /ai/, resentment

/æ/ damp, unattractive, magic, sacrifice, battle, anxious, anchor, rampart, chariot, shadow

/ei/ danger, sacred, invasion, campaigning, hastening

/ai/ tribe, designed

/i:/ priest, chieftain

/):/ authority, autumn, enormous, oar, hauled, shore

/i/ equal, sinister, f er tility /:/, influence, inland

/i/ mysterious

/ou/ grove, oak, exposed, coast

/u/ ensure

/ju:/ human, suitable

/u/ prove, rout

 

I. Read the following words paying attention to the way of pronunciation of consonants and combinations of consonants.

/k/ con qu er, an ch or

/f/ rou g hly, enou gh

/dζ/ reli g ion, ma g ic, dama g ed

/-/ desi g ned, w recked, ca l m, campai g ning

/t∫/ for t une

 

I. Read the following proper names correctly.

Caesar/’si:z/, Gaul /g):l/, France /fra:ns/, Belgium /’beldζm/, Rhine, Germany, Boulogne /bu:’loin/, Channel, Druids, Celtic, Walmer, Deal, Mediterranean, Cassivelaunus /,ksiv’l):ns/, Trinovantes /,train’vænts/, non-Belgic, Essex, Suffolk /’s/\f)lk/.

 

VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR AND TEXT EXERCISES

I. Analyze the structure of the following words, define parts of speech and translate the words.

roughly threaten mysterious

wealthy unattractive suitable

powerful rebellion resentment

 

II Make up pairs of synonyms.

a. conquest, wealthy, free, rebellion, authority, grove, expedition, testing, exposed, wrecked, object, enemy

b. checking, independent, forest, invasion, rich, aim, uprising, campaign, open, foe, broken, power.

 

III. Make up pairs of antonyms.

a. modern, wealthy, damp, free, success, hatred, suitable, damaged, unknown, difficult, enemy

b. familiar, love, poor, easy, unfit, ancient, repaired, dry, alliance, dependent, failure

 

I. Fill in the blanks with prepositions if necessary.

1. By the 55 BC Caesar had conquered … all Gaul.

2. His armies had reached and even crossed … the Rhine … Germany.

3. Discontented Gauls could escape … there and plot the rebellion … exile and the rebellion was a real danger … the Roman power … Gaul.

4. The religion … the Druids was mysterious and sinister.

5. … any rate, perhaps because … the horror … human sacrifice, the Romans were anxious to root … the Druids.

6. The Roman ship captains were not used … the tides.

7. Caesar was now … a very difficult position.

8. They landed … the same sort … open beach.

 

V. Choose the correct variant of the translation of the predicates in the following sentences

1. What made Caesar want to conquer Britain?

a) сделало b) заставило с) выполнило

1. Discontented Gauls could escape there

а) могли бежать b) могут бежать с) мoгли исчезнуть

1. He had to get his men back to Gaul.

a) должен увести b) должен был увести с) был вынужден увести

1. His enemy had driven away all the inhabitants.

а) увел b) увез с) уводит

1. For the Roman leader the situation was becoming increasingly difficult.

a) становилось b) становится с) стала

 

I. Finish the sentences according to the content of the text.

1. At the time of Roman conquest Britain …

a) was a wealthy country b) was a powerful country c) wasn’t a wealthy country

1. The climate of Britain was …

a) dry and hot b) damp and unattractive c) mild and damp

1. Britain was also a centre of …

a) religion of Druids b) religion of Catholicism c) religion of Islam

1. The aim of the first Caesar’s expedition was …

a) capturing of Britain b) conquest of Scotland c) finding suitable landing places

1. During the second landing …

a) there was heavy resistance b) there was no resistance c) there was a fierce battle

1. Cassivelaunus …

a) had other enemies besides the Romans b) had no other enemies besides Romans

c) had no enemies

 

I. Explain the following proper names.

Gaul, Boulogne, Channel, Druids, Britons, Cassivelaunus, Trinovantes

 

I. Find the passage where it is told about Caesar’s first landing in Britain, read it and translate.

 

IX. Answer the following questions.

1. What was the reason of Caesar’s invasion?

2. What do you know about the religion of Druids?

3. Why were the Romans anxious to root out the Druids?

4. What was the purpose of the first invasion?

5. What happened to the ships after the landing?

6. Why was Caesar in a difficult position?

7. Why did Caesar hurry inland immediately after the second landing?

8. What kind of enemy was Cassivelaunus?

9. What rout was Caesar forced to go inland?