Read the text and translate. Be ready to discuss

Plankton is composed of the phytoplankton (“the plants of the sea”) and zooplankton (zoh-plankton) which are typically the tiny animals found near the surface in aquatic environments. Like phytoplankton, zooplankton are usually weak swimmers and usually just drift along with the currents. Plankton are comprised of two main groups, permanent members of the plankton, called holoplankton (such as diatoms, radiolarians, dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, salps, etc.), and temporary members (such as most larval forms of sea urchins, sea stars, crustaceans, marine worms, some marine snails, most fish, etc.), which are called meroplankton. Along with phytoplankton, zooplankton are key components of marine ecosystems forming the base of most marine food webs.

Zooplankton are classified by size and/or by developmental stage. Size categories include: picoplankton that measure less than 2 micrometers, nanoplankton measure between 2-20 micrometers, microplankton measure between 20-200 micrometers, mesoplanktonmeasure between 0.2-20 millimeters, macroplankton measure between 20-200 millimeters, and the megaplankton, which measure over 200 millimeters (almost 8 inches). There are two categories used to classify zooplankton by their stage of development: meroplankton and holoplankton. Meroplankton are actually larvae that eventually change into worms, mollusks, crustaceans, coral, echinoderms, fishes, or insects. Holoplankton remain plankton for their entire life cycle and include pteropods, chaetognaths, larvaceans, siphonophores, and copepods.

Meroplankton and holoplankton are a component of almost every taxonomic group. However, the most common plankton are protists, nanoplanktonic flagellates, cnidarians, ctenophores, rotifers, chaetognatha, veliger larvae, copepods, cladocera, euphausids, krilland tunicates. Protists produce energy by photosynthesis and form the base of marine food webs as primary producers. Protozoa are also protists and are similar to animals. Protozoa make up a huge part of micro and nanozooplankton, such as amoebas, ciliates, and flagellates. These animals do not photosynthesize energy. Some amoebas such as those classified as Foraminifera and Actinopoda have hard skeletons, usually larger than 2 millimeters in diameter, that help form deep-sea sediment.

Zooplankton also include the nanoplanktonic flagellates that help keep bacteria populations under control. They are characterized by either a long tail used for swimming (flagellates) or by hair-like structures called cilia (ciliates). Some dinoflagellates have a net-like structure called a protoplasmic net—used to capture and eat prey that are typically larger in size than bacteria. Some dinoflagellate species are also responsible for harmful fish kills and the infamous red tides. Ciliates are capable of catching bacteria, other protists and phytoplankton.

Many types of zooplankton migrate deeper into the water during the day and come up at night. The migration of species appears to be dependent on location rather than particular species types. All plankton migrate differently based on factors like age, sex and the season. The amount of light is probably the major factor in the extent of migratory behavior. It seems that zooplankton move around most in low light and least in higher light situations. It’s possible that zooplankton migrate to lower levels during the day so they are less visible to predators relying on vision. At night, zooplankton can sneak up to the surface and snack on phytoplankton relatively safely. The lower metabolism occurring in colder waters during the day may also be a factor in the migration of zooplankton. This way, zooplankton can save energy by feeding in the cooler, night waters. Specific species of zooplankton occupy particular marine habitats. Each species is uniquely adapted to factors like light, temperature, turbulence, and salinity in its environment. Zooplankton on one side of the Gulf Stream are different species from those on the other side. These characteristics of different species of zooplankton can sometimes help scientists distinguish one water mass from another.

Zooplankton are also sensitive to their environment and like phytoplankton—a change in zooplankton concentration can indicate a subtle environmental change. Zooplankton are highly responsive to nutrient levels, temperatures, pollution, food that is not nutritious, levels of light, and increases in predation. Zooplankton are also affected by levels of pH, heavy metals, calcium, and aluminum. Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus will affect the prey of zooplankton (like algae, protozoa and bacteria), indirectly affecting zooplankton survival.

Exercise 47. Read and translate the following words and word combinations from Russian into English.

Оболочники, крылоногие,щетинкочелюстные, аппендикулярии, весь жизненный цикл, протисты, книдарии, ктенофоры, копеподы, кладоцеры, эвфаузиды, амебы, реснитчатые, протоплазматическая сеть, голопланктон, радиолярии, фораминиферы, динофлагелляты, амфиподы, иглокожие, сальпы, птероподы, личинки, сифонофоры.

Exercise 48.  Make up collocations using words from both columns.

Exercise 40.Look through the text to find out more information about:

- the most common plankton are protists;

-  zooplankton migrate deeper into the water;

- zooplankton are classified by size;

- zooplankton can sometimes help scientists;

- zooplankton also include the nanoplanktonic flagellates

Exercise 40. Define the following organisms through internet, give an explanation:

Diatoms, radiolarians, dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, salps, pteropods, chaetognaths, larvaceans, siphonophores, copepods, holoplankton.