John runs like a fox

Notice that usually in similes only one attribute is affected in the comparison between "John" and "fox"--the way John runs.

Metaphor

The strongest of the comparisons is the metaphor. A metaphor is a "direct comparison" since the metaphor so often suggests complete transformation in the figure of speech. Here's an example:

John is a fox.

In this construction, every attribute of "fox" is carried, by implication, to John--in short, a complete transformation. Notice, however, that you will rarely find a metaphor constructed so directly and simplistically.

Types of Metaphor Constructions

The Simple Metaphor

The simple metaphor is illustrated above. A direct equation is stated, transforming the primary subject into the secondary subject.

The Collapsed Metaphor

In the collapsed metaphor, the linking verb--the verbal "equals" sign, is dropped, creating grammatically an apositive (a noun followed by its definition):

John, the fox,...

The Abstracted Metaphor

An "abstraction" is the reduction of a subject to its most basic or selected distinctive features. An example is a line drawing of a person or some figure. The full "reality" of the subject is reduced to a two-dimensional rendering. The same effect can occur in verbal abstractions. In the case of the abstracted metaphor, the primary subject is deleted, retaining only the secondary subject, as in this example:

- - - "fox"

as in the expression:

"Hey! Let's call ol' "fox." He'll go bowling tonight.

The Inverted Metaphor

In the inverted metaphor, the primary and secondary subjects are switched in the sentence frame to create an "adjective-noun" construction. Here's an example:

Foxy John

and you may snicker because you realize that, in English as in the idioms of other languages as well, "word order" affects "word meaning"--that "John, the fox" doesn't carry quite the same message as "foxy John"!