The editorial

The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of the certain facts. Editorial comment on the political and other events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editor`s opinion and interpretation of the news published and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one. Like any evaluative writing, editorials appeal not only to the reader`s mind but to his feelings as well.

21. The Scientific prose style The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. There are following characteristic features of scientific style: 1. the logical sequence of utterances; 2. the use of terms specific to each given branch of science; 3. so-called sentence-patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. 4. the use of quotations and references; 5. the frequent use of foot-note, of the reference kind, but digressive in character. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style 22. Official documents are written in a formal, “cold” or matter-of-fact style of speech. The style of official documents, or ‘officialese’ as it is sometimes called, is not homogeneous and is represented by the following sub-styles, or varieties: 1. the language of business documents, 2. the language of legal documents, 3. the language of diplomacy, 4. the language of military documents. Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be: a) the state and the citizen, or citizen and citizen (jurisdiction); b) a society and its members (statute or ordinance); c) two or more enterprises or bodies (business correspondence or contracts); d) two or more governments (pacts, treaties); e) a person in authority and a subordinate (orders, regulations, authoritative directions); f) the board or presidium and the assembly or general meeting (procedures acts, minutes), etc. In other words, the aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties. Even protest against violations of statutes, contracts, regulations, etc., can also be regarded as a form by which normal cooperation is sought on the basis of previously attained concordance. The most general function of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking, though not the most essential feature, is a special system of clichйs, terms and set expressions by which each sub-style can easily be recognized, for example: I beg to inform you; I beg to move; I second the motion; provisional agenda; the above-mentioned; hereinafter named; on behalf of; private advisory; Dear sir; We remain, your obedient servants. In fact, each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Thus, in finance we find terms like extra revenue; taxable capacities; liability to profit tax. Terms and phrases like high contracting parties; to ratify an agreement; memorandum; pact; protectorate; extra-territorial status; plenipotentiary will immediately brand the utterance as diplomatic. In legal language, examples are: to deal with a case; summary procedure; a body of judges; as laid down in; the succeeding clauses of agreement; to reaffirm faith in fundamental principles; to establish the required conditions; the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law. 23. PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES The theory of sense – independence of separate sounds is based on a subjective interpretation of sound associations and has nothing to do with objective scientific data. However, the sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, cannot fail to contribute something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate analysis of sound arrangement. Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which alms at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, burr, bang, cuckoo. Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: ” The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. We distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, including the initial consonant of the second syllable. Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety They can be divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel-rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in flesh – fresh -press. 24. Graphical expressive means include the use of punctuation, graphical arrangement of phrases, violation of type and spelling. Graphon: the intentional violation of the generally accepted spelling used to reflect peculiarities of pronunciation or emotional state of the speaker. Types of graphon: multiplication, hyphenation, capitalization, apostrophe. Functions: - to give the reader an idea about smth (level of education, emotional state, origin). – to attract attention. – to make smb memorize it. – to show smth, explain. Graphical means are popular with advertisers. They individualize speech of the character or advertising slogan. A better stain getter. How do you spell relief? R-O-L-I-P-S – to make reader / listener to remember it. 25. break-in-the-narrative Break-in-the-narrative is a device which, on the one hand, offers a number of variants in deciphering the implication and, on the other, is highly predictable. The problem of implication is, as it were, a crucial one in stylistics. What is implied sometimes outweighs what is expressed. In other stylistic devices the degree of implication is not so high as in break-in-the narrative. A sudden break in the narrative will inevitably focus the attention on what is left unsaid. Therefore the interrelation between what is given and what is new becomes more significant, inasmuch as the given is what is said and the new—what is left unsaid. There is a phrase in colloquial English which has become very familiar: "Good intentions but—" The implication here is that nothing has come of what it was planned to accomplish. 26. represented speech and rthetorical questions There are three ways of reporting a character's speech, or, still more commonly, his thoughts, which is especially common in 20th century authors. The third way of reporting a character's speech or his thoughts stands apart from those two. the difference of reconstruction and the actual text consists in tenses of verbs and uses personal a third person pronoun. A typical specimen of this third way, which is sometimes referred to as "represented speech",
In rhetoric, a formal address delivered to an audience--an oration or oral presentation. Classical rhetoric recognized three main types or genres of speech: deliberative,judicial, and epideictic

27. Newspaper style is the artificial or hyperbolic, and sometimes over-abbreviated, language regarded as characteristic of the popular media.
Brief news items
The function of a brief news item is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. Newspaper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of: 1. special political and economic terms; 2. non-term political vocabulary; 3. newspaper cliché; 4. abbreviations; 5. neologisms.
The following grammatical peculiarities of brief news items are of paramount importance, and may be regarded as grammatical parameters of newspaper style: 1. complex sentences with a developed system of clauses; 2. verbal constructions; 3. syntactical complexes; 4. attributive noun groups; 5. specific word order.

Advertisement a paid announcement, as of goods forsale, in newspapers or magazines, on radio or television, etc.
a public notice, especially in print.
public or formal notice announcing something:

The announcement appeared in thenewAdvertisem.The act of announcing.
The editorial-
An editorial, leading article (UK) or leader (UK), is an opinion piece written by the senior editorial staff or publisher of a newspaper, magazine, or any other written document. Editorials may be supposed to reflect the opinion of the periodical.

29. Interaction of logical and emotive meanings (interjections and exclamatory words) There are words with the function of arousing emotions in the reader. In such words emotiveness prevails over intellectuality. There are also words in which logical meaning is almost entirely lost. These words express feelings which have passed trough out mind. Emotiveness is a category of our minds, feelings are expressed indirectly. That’s why it is natural that some emotive words have become symbols of emotions. Interjections are words which we use to express our feelings strongly and which exist in language in the form of conventional symbols of human emotions.
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meanings in an attributive word, emotionally colored attitude of the speaker to the object he describes.
An oxymoron (plural oxymora oroxymorons) is a figure of speech that juxtaposes elements that appear to be contradictory. Oxymora appear in a variety of contexts, including inadvertent errors (such as "ground pilot") and literary oxymorons crafted to reveal a paradox.

30. Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings. Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantic Effect, Zeugma and Pun The word is the most changeable of all language units. In the result of the gradual development of the meaning of the word new meanings appear alongside the primary one – derivative meanings. All of them are interconnected with the primary one and create a network – polysemantic effect.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being literal and transferred. Zeugma always creates a humorous effect.

Pun – it has a humorous effect which may be based on misinterpretation of the speaker’s utterance by the other or by the result of the speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation. When are true words – sweet words? When they are candid. Pun is also a play on words of the same sound, it may be based on homonymy, polysemy.

36. Unuttered or inner represented speech. As has often been pointed out, language has two functions: the communicative and the expressive. The communicative function serves to convey one's thoughts, volitions, emotions and orders to the mind of a second person. The expressive function serves to shape one's thoughts and emotions into language forms. This second function is believed to be the only way of materializing thoughts and emotions. This process of materializing one's thoughts by means of language units is called inner speech. The expressive function of language is suppressed by its communicative function, and the reader is presented with a complete language unit capable of carrying information. This device is called inner represented speech. Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, expresses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language. Unuttered or inner represented speech follows the same morphological pattern as uttered represented speech, but the syntactical pattern shows variations to be accounted for by the fact that it is inner speech, not uttered speech. The tense forms are shifted to the past: the third person personal pronouns replace the first and second. The interrogative word order is maintained as in direct speech. The fragmentary character of the utterance manifests itself in unfinished sentences, exclamations and in one-member sentences.

37.The style of official documents. There is finally one more style of language within the scope of standard literary English which has become singled out, and that is the style of official documents, or officialese and it is sometimes called. Like other styles, it is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants:

1.the language of business documents

2.the language of legal documents

3.that of diplomacy

4.that of military documents

Like other styles of language this style has a definite communicative aim and accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. These parties may be: the state and the citizen, a society and its members, two or more enterprises or bodies, two or more governments, a person in authority and a subordinate, the board or presidium and the assembly or general meeting. In other words the aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties. Even protest against violations of statutes, contracts, regulations, can also be regarded as a form by which normal cooperation is sought on the basis of previously attained concordance. This most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking, though not the most essential feature, is a special system of clichés, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can easily be recognized.

38. Break in the Narrative. In the spoken variety of the language a break in the narrative is usually caused by unwillingness to proceed, or by the supposition that what remains to be said can be understood by the implication embodied in what was said, or by uncertainty as to what should be said. In the written variety a break in the narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard and fast distinction between break in the narrative as a typical feature of lively colloquial language and as a specific stylistic device. The only criterion which may serve as a guide is that in conversation the implication can be conveyed by an adequate gesture. In writing it is the context, which suggests the adequate intonation, that is the only key to decoding the aposiopesis. Aposiopesis is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of this stylistic device is that the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language.

39.Question in the narrative. Question in the narrative changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. Question in the narrative is very often used in oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical style- to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech. Questions here chain the attention of the listeners to the matter the orator is dealing with and prevent it from wandering. They also give the listeners time to absorb what has been said, and prepare for the next point. When a question begins to fulfil a function not directly arising from its linguistic and psychological nature, it may have a certain volume of emotional charge. Question in the narrative is a case of this kind. Here its function deviates slightly from its general signification.

40. Transferred use of structural meaning. On analogy with transference of lexical meaning, in which words are used other than in their primary logical sense, syntactical structures may also be used in meanings other than their primary ones. Every syntactical structure has its definite function which is sometimes called its structural meaning. When a structure is used in some other function it may be said to assume a new meaning which is similar to lexical transferred meaning. Among syntactical stylistic devices there are two in which this transference of structural meaning is to be seen. They are rhetorical questions and litotes. The rhetorical question is a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. In other words the question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence. Thus there is an interplay of two structural meanings.1) that of the question 2) that of the statement. Both are materialized simultaneously. Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions. The negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing. This positive feature is somewhat diminished in a quality as compared with a synonymous expression making a straightforward assertion of the positive feature.

41.Rhetotical Questions

Rhetotical Questions is a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the intterogative sentence. In other words, the question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence. thus there is an interplay of two structural meaning 1. that of the question and 2. that of the statement. both are materialized simultaneously.F.e " Are these the remedies for a starving and desperate populase?"

42. Litotes

Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions. the negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing. this positive feature, however, is somewhat diminished in quality as compared with a synontmous expression making a straightforward assertion of the positive feature.F.e"
It is not bad.-(Is a good thing)

He is no coward.-(He is a brave man) "

43 ,The Gap-Sentence Link The Gap-Sentence Link (GSL) is a peculiar type of connection of sentences in which the connection is not immediately seen and it requires an effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance.She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they are in Italy.(It means-Those who ought to be the sufferers are enjoying themselves in Italy where well-to-do English people go for holiday.)

The Gap-Sentence Link is generally indicated by and or but. The functions of GSL are the following:

1) it signals the introduction of inner represented speech;

2) it indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts;

3) it displays an unexpected coupling of ideas.

The Gap-Sentence Link aims at stirring up in the reader’s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence can exist.

44. The belles letters style

We have already pointed out that the belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and most general properties of the style are materialized. these three substyles are:

1. The language of poetry, o simply verse

2. emotive prose, or the language of fiction

3. The language of the drama

Each of these substyles has certain common features, typical of the general belles -letters style, which make up the foundation of the style, by which the particular style is made reconizable and can therefore be singled out. the purpose of the belles -lettres style is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forecing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer.this is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style

45 .Poetic words, as the term itself implies, are used primarily in poetry. They may be likened to terms in more than one way. First of all they belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. If encountered in another style they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry and prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial.The satirical function of poetic words and conventional poetic devices is well revealed in this stanza. The 'tired metaphor' and the volcano' are typical of Byron's estimate of the value of conventional metaphors and stereotyped poetical expressions.

46.Barbarisms (иностранного происхождения, неотъемлемая часть)

It the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called Barbarisms.

Those are words of foreign origin which have been completely assimilated into the English language. They have appearance of borrowing and are felt as something alien (чуждый) to the native tongue.

The great majority of these borrowed words now form part and parcel (неотъемлемая часть) of the English vocabulary. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms.

Ex: chick = stylish, ‘chagrin (vexation) – досада, en route - on the road = по пути

bon mot (a clever or witty saying) - острота, en passant = in passing – мимоходом

They are used for certain stylistic purposes in formal style. Etymologically they are of Latin, Greek or French origin. Mostly they are legal terms (de facto, entre nous, brochure etc.).

It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language.

First of all poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry and prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial.

Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a moribund state, to death, i.e. complete disappearance of the unit from the language.