Classification of prefixes

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Prefixes may be classified on the same principles as suffixes.

Synchronically prefixes may be classified:

I. according to the class of words they preferably form:

a) verb-forming, e.g. en-/em- (embed, enclose); be- (befriend); de- (dethrone);

b) noun-forming prefixes, e.g. non- (non-smoker), sub- (sub-total), ex- (ex-champion);

c) adjective-forming prefixes, e.g. un- (unfair); il- (illiterate);

d) adverb-forming prefixes, e.g. -un (unfortunately), -up (uphill);

II. as to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to into:

a) deverbal, e.g. rewrite, outstay, overdo, etc.;

b) denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain, ex-president, etc.;

c) deadjectival, e.g. uneasy, biannual, etc.;

III. number of meanings:

1. monosemantic co- “joint, with, accompanying” coordinator, cooperation, co-worker, co-auther;

2. polysemantic un - 1) “not, opposite of” unnecessary, unequal, 2) “reverse action, deprive of, release from” undo, untie;

IV. as to the generic denotational meaning:

a) negative prefixes, such as: un¹-, non-, in-, dis¹-, a -, e.g. ungrateful, unemployment, non-politician, non-scientific, incorrect, disloyal, disadvantage, amoral, asymmetry;

b) reversative or privative prefixes (these prefixes describe actions being reversed or of antonymic character), such as un²-, de-, dis² -, e.g. untie, unleash, decentralise, disconnect;

c) prefixes of time and order, such as fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, e.g. foretell, foreknowledge, prewar, postsurvey, post-classical, ex-soldier;

d) prefix of repetition: re-, e.g. rebuild, re-write;

e) locative prefixes, such as super-, sub-, inter-, trans-,e.g. superstructure, subway, inter-continental, transatlantic;

V. connotational meaning:

- stylistically neutral, e.g. unnatural, unknown, unlace, outnumber, oversee, resell, undernourish, etc.;

- stylistically marked, for example, pejorative prefixes (pejorative prefixes are highly evaluative in the negative sense), such as mis-, mal-, pseudo -, e.g. miscalculate, misinform, maltreat, pseudo-classicism, pseudo-scientific; those possessing quite a definite terminological value, e.g. pseudo-classical, superstructure, ultra-violet, unilateral, bifocal, etc.;

VI. as to the degree of productivity:

- highly-productive (de-, re-, pre-, non-, un-, anti-. sub-, over-, under-, pro-);

- productive (co-, a-, mal-, arch-, out-, sur-, counter-);

- non-productive (in-, il-, ir-, im-, mis-, dis -, be-, en-).

VI. diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin:

a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under-, etc.;

b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re-, etc.;

c) Greek, such as: sym-, hyper-, etc.

Hybrids are words that consist of etymologically different morphemes. Models are many: a native root + borrowed word-building morphemes, e.g. to dislike (Latin prefix + native root); borrowed root + native affix, e.g. peaceful (native root + French suffix), around (English prefix + French root); all elements are borrowed but from different languages, e.g. violinist (Italian root + Greek suffix), unmistakable (English prefix + Scandinavian root + Latin suffix).

Conversion (affixless word-derivation, zero derivation)consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. For instance, yellow in “The leaves were turning yellow” – the adjective denotes colour. Yet in “The leaves yellowed” the converted unit no longer denotes colour, but the process of changing colour, so that there is an essential change in meaning. Besides these two words yellow (adj) – to yellow (v) differ in the paradigm. Thus it is the paradigm that is used as a word-building means. Hence, we may define conversion as the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm. As soon as the word has crossed the category borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the properties of the new category, so that if it has entered the verb category it is used in all the forms of tense and has the forms of the participle and the gerund.

Among the main varieties of conversion are:

1) verbalization (the formation of verbs), e.g. water – to water, ape – to ape, doctor – to doctor, score – to score, wireless – to wireless, vacuum – to vacuum;

2) substantivation (the formation of nouns), e.g. to run – run, the rich and the poor, the wounded, a savage, a commercial, a criminal, a grown-up, a final (exam), tangibles, a vertical.

3) adjectivization (the formation of adjectives), e.g. a kindly gentleman, the down escalator;

4) adverbialization (the formation of adverbs), e.g. to go home, to work hard.

One should take into consideration synchronic and diachronic criteria when speaking of conversion. Homonymous word were absent in Old English, cf. lufu – lufian. So it’s necessary to discriminate between homonymous parts of speech such as smoke, work, note, drink, rest, change, answer, hate, sorrow and parts of speech derived according to the conversion model such as smile, dream, move, nose, laugh, place, hand, pity, praise, chance.

Compounding or word-composition is the means of word-formation in which words are made up of two immediate constituents which are both derivative bases, e.g. lamp-shade, ice-cold, looking-glass, daydream, hotbed, speedometer, peace-fighter, care-free, long-legged, ash-tray, a run-away, etc.