2015-10-16
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Name:............................................................................................
Address:........................................................................................
Telephone number:……………………………………………
Date of birth:.. ………………………………………………….
Nationality:..... ………………………………………………….
Marital status:. ………………………………………………….
Education:...... ………………………………………………….
Qualifications:…………………………………………………
Present position:……………………………………………….
Previous employment:…………………………………………
Additional skills and interests:………………………………….
Referees:……………………………………………………………
UNIT 4
THE CELL
VOCABULARY
Ex. 1. Read and memorize the following words:
• blood n кровь • body n тело • brain n мозг •drop n капля • size n размер • shape n форма •nucleusи- ядро, pi. nuclei• fat n жир • fiber n • волокно, фибра, нить • digestion n пище варение • excretion n выделение • reproduction n размножение • human being человек • average а средний • advanced a передовой, прогрессивный • tiny а крошечный • dense a плотный • thick а толстый • thin а тонкий • thread-like а нитевидный, волокнистый • multiply размножаться • exist v существовать • vary v меняться, изменять (ся), отличаться • contract v сокращаться • abandon v отказывать, оставлять.
Ex. 2. Read the following international words. Translate them without dictionary. Mind the part of speech they belong to:
bacteria n, human a, special a, specialize v, group n, v, complex n, a, matter n, protoplasm n, cytoplasm n, moment n, protein n, impulse n, photosynthesis n, muscle n, form n, v, process n,, material n, method n.
Ex. 3. Translate the following word combinations. Mind the attributive usage of the nouns (stone wall-construction):
|
| cells |
Ex. 4. Pay attention to the ways some terminological adjectives are formed. Translate the derivatives into Russian:
a) nucleus n + -ar - nuclear a
cell n + -(ul)ar - cellular a
muscle n + -ar - muscular a
molecule n + -ar - molecular a
b)
| cellular |
multi-
| uni- sub - |
Ex.5.
a) Memorize the synonyms:
to consist of –
to be composed of - состоять из
to be made up of-
b) Translate the sentences into Russian:
1. All living things are composed of cells. 2. Multicellular organisms are made up of a number of cells. 3. The human being is made up about 50,000,000,000,000 cells. 4. Microorganisms are made up single cells, they are unicellular organisms. 5. Tissues consist of group of cells of similar shape, size and function.
READING
Before you read
Discuss these questions with your partner.
1. Can you draw a cell and label its parts?
2. What part contains hereditary information?
3. Have you ever seen a cell under the microscope?
4. Do you remember your impressions?
TEXT
THE CELL
A cell is a tiny unit which constitutes the core of all living things: human, animal, plant or microbe. It was an English mathematician and physicist called Robert Hooke who, in 1665, first recorded his observations of cells under a microscope and published them in a book entitled Micrograpliici. Hooke noted that there are single-celled organisms, such as the amoeba, and multi-celled organisms, such as man. In the latter type of organism, it was revealed that the cells are grouped together to form different types of tissues, and the tissues then form organs.
The structure of a cell appears very simple. It is a jelly-like mass, called protoplasm, enclosed by a wall, with a central nucleus. Although research continued into the structure and function of cells, it was not until the late 19th century that a process of staining and fixing tissues was developed. This made it possible for scientists to preserve the cells for more detailed observation under a microscope. It was then discovered that new cells are formed by the division of old ones, and that each cell has its own lifespan. In other words, a cell is born (created), feeds, produces waste, grows, splits to create new cells or disintegrates and dies. Each cell has a specific function and specific characteristics, for example, muscle cells stretch and nerve cells carry information.
Stem cells are central to this infrastructure. These cells provide a remarkable repair system for the body, as they are able to develop into any type of cell. They can continue to redivide as often as possible to replace damaged or dying cells. The cells created from the division of a stem cell can remain stem cells, or become any of the other specific cells (blood cells, brain cells or other) in the organism. The key to the division process lies in the nucleus. The nucleus splits into two identical parts in the shape of rods or threads, which break away in opposite directions and form new nuclei. At this point the cell itself divides and two new cells are born. The rods or threads are called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of links of protoplasm called genes joined together in a chain. It is the genes that determine the essence of each cell and its particular characteristics. The number of chromosomes found in a particular organism always remains the same, but it will vary depending on the species; human beings have 48, for example, and sugar cane over 200.
COMPREHENSION
Ex. 1. Read the text and answer the questions in your own words.
1. How do organs form in multi-celled organisms?
2. What stages/processes does a cell's lifespan include?
3. Why are stem cells important?
4. What happens to the two identical threads or rods the nucleus splits up into?
5. What are chromosomes?
Ex. 2. Complete the sentences with the words
chromosomes, multi-celled, single-celled, protoplasm, tissues, nucleus, stem cell
1........... are found in cells and pass on information.
2. …………………bacteria are organisms.
3.......... ….organisms consist of more than one cell.
4. Cells of the same structure and function that are grouped together form……………
5. ……………………….is the jelly-like mass that fills a cell.
6. The cell's hereditary material is stored in its……………………..
7. Every single cell in the body is born by a………………………………
Ex. 3. Translate the Sentences into Russian
1. The smallest unit of living matter that can exist by itself is the cell.
2. Robert Hooke, an English mathematician and physicist, was the first to see cells under a microscope and noted that there are single-celled and multi-celled organisms.
3. In multi-celled organisms, cells similar in form and structure are usually grouped together into different types of tissue.
4. A cell contains a nucleus; this is found in the protoplasm, which is enclosed by a wall.
5. Every cell goes through the same stages of a life cycle: it is born, feeds, grows, splits to create new cells and dies.
6. Stem cells are cells that have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body. They can continue to redivide as often as possible to replace damaged or dying cells, denes are the units of heredity found in chromosomes, which are found in the nucleus.
Ex. 4. Give the synonyms.
to multiply –
to consist of –
matter –
living organism –
Ex. 5.Render the contents of the text in 10 sentences.
GRAMMAR
Ex. 1.A group of friends are going on a coach trip together. They're meeting at the coach stop. Complete the conversation. Put in a personal pronoun (I, me, you, etc) or a reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself, etc).
Polly: Where's Martin?
Rupert: He's ill. I spoke to (0) him yesterday. He was feeling a bit sorry for (1)…………………..
Polly: Oh, poor Martin. And what about the twins?
Peter: (2) ………………..came with Janet and me. (3) .......………...gave (4)………………… a lift.
Janet: Yes, the twins came with (5).......................in the car.
Tessa: I hope they're going to behave (6).........................
Janet: Oh, I'm sure they will.
Rupert: (7)………………. '11 be nice to have a day out. (8)……………….... say it's going to stay sunny.
Polly: I'm sure we'll all enjoy (9).........................
Peter: Where's Anna?
Tessa: Oh, she's here somewhere. I spoke to (10)..................……. a moment ago.
She was standing right next to (11).........................
Ex. 2. Decide which word is correct.
0 I can't go to a party. I haven't got anything to wear.
a) anything b) everything c) something d) nothing
1 Take care, won't you, Anna? Look after............................
a) you b) your c) yours d) yourself
2 Yes,.........would be lovely to see you again.
a) it b) that c) there d) you
3 If you want some apples, I'll get you.............................at the shop.
a) any b) it c) one d) some
4 We've brought some food with...............................
a) me b) ourselves c) us d) we
5 Who does this CD belong to? ~............................... I've just bought it.
a) I b) Me c) Mine d) Myself
6 The shop doesn't sell new books. It on\y sells old.........
a) of them b) ones c) some d) them
7 Is …………............ a post office near here, please?
a) here b) it c) there d) this
8 The two girls often wear..........................clothes.
a) each other b) each other's c) themselves d) themselves'
9 Have you had enough to eat, or would you like something……………………?
a) another b) else c) new d) other
Ex. 3. Put in some, any or no.
1. She helped me borrow... more money.
2. There is hardly... a place in this house where we can talk alone.
3.... boy at the school had ever taken a scholarship to the university.
4. It meant real hardship to my mother unless I earned... money at once.
5. My mother hoped that perhaps the school had. funds to give me a grant.
6. It was unlikely that... of the guests would take particular notice of it.
7. They understood each other without. words.
8. There isn’t... boot-polish in this tin.
9. You have. fine flowers in your garden.
LISTENING
Before you listen
Discuss the following with your partner.
1. How is DNA useful to different people in different occupations?
2. Talk about: archaeologists, doctors, the police
Ex. 1. Listen to a talk. Then complete the information about DNA.
1. Each strand has about……………………….. billion letters of coding.
2. We inherit the information from our ………………………….
3. DNA will be useful in the future for ……………………… care.
4. The Y chromosome comes from our…………………………..
5. Archaeologists use DNA found in people's…………………….
6. The police get information from DNA found at a …………….
WRITING
SENDING A FAX
Ex. 1. Janet Cooper wants to go to Spain on holiday with her family. She decides to fax the receptionist at the Hotel Plaza in Alicante to see if they have the accommodation she requires. Look at the information on this page, and fill in the first part of Janet’s fax. She will get all the information on one page. The code for Spain from the UK is 00 34.
HOTEL PLAZA
 This luxury hotel is situated on the water’s edge of one of the most beautiful beaches in Spain.
For reservations and enquiries:
phone (6)527 21 56 FAX (6)527 15 02
|
Ex. 2. Write out the words of Janet’s fax message in the correct order.
| Janet and Peter Cooper 8 Fast Lane Chesswood Herts WD5 8QR tel 01923 284908 fax 01923 285446 4 June Dear Lynette It was lovely to see... Love, Ganet |
| FAX TRANSMISSION From ________________________ To ________________________ For the attention of ________________________ Message _________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ Yours faithfully Janet Couper | Page 1 of ________________________ Date ________________________ To fax no ________________________ From fax no ________________________ a) rooms hotel I to some would like reserve at your b) in 28 July We on Alicante are arriving c) ten hope stay to We for nights leaving 7 August on d) and husband like room I My double balcony a would with preferably a e) require Our a two teenage daughters twin room f) are all en-suite that We understand your bedrooms g) you this confirm Could? h) a sea view possible Is have it rooms to with? i) available if me let you Please for know have dates these rooms j) grateful if I be would also me you could tell room each price the of k) from I forward look you to hearing |
UNIT 5
THE VARIETY OF LIFE
VOCABULARY
PLANTS AND ANIMALS. SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCE
Ex. l. Read and memorize the following words:
• inhabit v жить, обитать, населять • respect я 1) уважение 2) отношение • ingest v глотать, проглатывать • liquid а жидкий • waste и отходы, отбросы; • eliminate v физиол.), выделять • vapour пар, испарение • solution п раствор • male а мужского пола, мужской • female женского пола, женский • responce n реакция
Ex. 2. Translate the following international words:
cross v, absorb v, primary a, filter n, mechanism n, absolutely transport n, stimuli n, emotion n, unique a, gravity n, cybernetics,sensor n, practice n, hydrosystem n, instrument n
Ex. 3. Read the following verbs with the suffix -ize and give the Russian for them:
to organize, to specialize, to acclimatize, to fertilize, to oxidize, utilize, to parasitize, to evaporize, to hypothesize.
Ex. 4. Read and translate the words with the same root. Guess their meaning.
a vapour n — nap evaporate v, evaporation n, evaporative v, evaporator n, evaporize v; evaporable a
Ex. 5. Match the pairs of synonyms from a) and b). Use a dictionary if necessary. Write them down and memorize:
a) perform v, eliminate v, evidence n, current n, observe v, assess v, elaborate v, basic a, involve v, convert v, utilized v;
b) release v, accomplish w, work out v, determine v, flow n, main a, use v, change v, include v, watch v, proof n.
Ex. 6. Match the pairs of antonyms. Use a dictionary if necessary. Write them down and memorize:
a) physical a, negative a, similar a, loss n, utilize v, liquid a, artificial a, rule n, male n, exhale v
b) inhale v, female n, exception n, mental a, natural a, solid a, waste v, positive a, gain n, different a.
Ex. 7. Read and memorize the following terms:
chlorophyll, carbohydrate, autotrophic, fungi - pl. от fungus, _ hydrolysis, ammonium, urea, urine, pollen, ovule, holozoic, holophytic, saprozoic.
Ex. 9. Read and remember the names of
a)basic life functions of organisms:
nutrition n — питание, digestion n — пищеварение, excretion n — выделение, respiration n — дыхание, reproduction — размножение, sensation n — ощущение;
c) senses:
touch — осязание, sight — зрение, smell — обоняние, taste — вкус, hearing — слух.
READING
TEXT
PLANTS AND ANIMALS LIFE FUNCTIONS
1. What is the basic difference between plants and animals?
More than a million different kinds of plants and animals inhabit the earth. Plants and animals differ greatly in appearance, size, shape, colour. These differences are clearly seen if you compare grasses, trees, flowers, on the one hand, and various insects, birds, fishes, men, on the other hand. The basic difference between plants and animals lies in the unit of structure and function — the cell. Plant cells have a cell wall which is actually non-living in chemical nature. Animal cells do not have that. But in spite of1 the difference all living organisms are similar in many respects. Plants and animals perform several common functions. These are called life functions. One way of studying animals and:. ants is to begin with their life functions.
2. What are the main types of nutrition?
Three main types of nutrition are known for living organisms, Holozoic nutrition is demonstrated by most animals which ingest plants or other animals through a mouth or oral opening and in this way obtain he energy that they require.
Saprozoic nutrition is characteristic of those organisms that have no oral opening, but absorb liquid food directly into their cells from the environment or from some other organism which they parasitize.
Holophytic nutrition, known as photosynthesis, is demonstrated by those green plants that contain chlorophyll. These living plants have the ability to use chlorophyll in the presence of light to combine water and carbon dioxide into simple and complex carbohydrates which they utilize as food.
3. What substances accelerate the chemical reactions during the process of digestion?
Digestion is a process in living organisms where in complex food materials are converted to simpler compounds. The simplification of these compounds is accomplished by the chemical addition of water, in order for this process to occur at low temperatures, special substances called enzymes accelerate the chemical reactions. Once the simple compounds have been formed by hydrolysis, the food is oxidized (combined with oxygen) to obtain energy, and waste products are subsequently created. This oxidative process occurs within the protoplasm of the pros.
4. Are the waste products eliminated in plants and animals in the same way?
The waste products that are produced by digestion in plants are water and carbon dioxide. These are eliminated directly from the cell into the environment as water vapour and gas, respectively, without the need of special excretory organs. In addition to carbon dioxide and water, animals produce a waste known as urea which is an ammonium compound containing nitrogen. Special organs are utilized to remove this waste from the body. In complex animals such as man, urea leaves the body as urine, a form of dilute urea plus other waste salts. Although we eliminate part of the carbon dioxide and water as gas and water vapour when we ’’exhale”, other water is used in the filtering mechanism of our kidneys and is eliminated as part of the urine. Thus the process of digestion occurs in plants and animals in essentially the same manner, except that different foods may be utilized by each, and the waste are eliminated in different ways.
5. Why is respiration closely connected to digestion?
Respiration is the exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide in living organisms. This is closely related to the process of digestion, because oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is eliminated. Carbon dioxide is poisonous to animals, and therefore is a waste product. In plants carbon dioxide is needed in photosynthesis to produce food, and subsequently oxygen becomes a waste product. Both plants and animals require oxygen in the process of digestion. Animals are absolutely dependent on plants for oxygen, as well as for the basic compounds which yield the energy in the food cycles of which plants and animals are a part.
6. What is fertilization?
Reproduction in plants and animals is similar in some respects, yet different in others. Some one-celled plants and animals reproduce simply by division of the cell so that a new organism is formed. Other plants and animals grow a bud, a group of specialized cells which eventually separate from the parent body to become a separate organism. Some plants such as ferns and fungi produce tiny specialized cells, each of which grows to be a new plant. Still other plants and animals produce specialized cells, two of which fuse — one from the male organism and the other from the female — to form the new individual. In both plants and animals the fusion process of these two specialized cells is called fertilization. In animals various means are used to bring these two specialized cells —the male sperm and the female egg or ovum — together. In plants, because they are incapable of movement from one place to another, the manner of bringing these two specialized cells together is accomplished in a variety of unique ways. The transfer of the pollen (the male cell) to the ovule (the female cell) is accomplished by wind or insects and sometimes by birds and other animals. In some cases gravity plays a part, and in aquatic plants the pollen may be carried by water currents. In any case, the transfer of the pollen is known as pollination.
7. What senses does the nervous system of animals involve?
Plants and animals respond to stimuli, although plants do not possess с nervous system like that of most animals. Some evidence is available to demonstrate that plants have ’’emotions” and react negatively or positively to noise stimuli. Some plants demonstrate ’’sleep movements” wherein their leaves roll up when the temperature changes or when they are touched. In Mimosa the leaves may respond to a stimulus such touch within a few seconds. The response is not from a nervous reaction, but from a condition known as ’’turgor”, which is a loss or gain of water in certain cells.
In animals the nervous system may be most complex, involving the senses of touch, sight, smell, taste, and hearing.
COMPREHENSION
Ex. 1. Match the word and its definition making use of the text:
| Respiration | is | the process of fusion of two specialized male and female cells, the exchange of the gases. |
| Pollination | the exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide in living organisms. | |
| Fertilization | the transfer of the pollen. | |
| Digestion | an example of halophytic nutrition. | |
| Photosynthesis | the process of converting complex food materials into simpler compounds. |
Ex. 2. Translate the Sentences into Russian
1. Plants and animals differ greatly in appearance, size, shape, colour.
2. Photosynthesis, is demonstrated by those green plants that contain chlorophyll.
3. The waste products that are produced by digestion in plants are water and carbon dioxide.
4. Both plants and animals require oxygen in the process of digestion.
5. Reproduction in plants and animals is similar in some respects, yet different in others.
6. In animals the nervous system may be most complex, involving the senses of touch, sight, smell, taste, and hearing.
Ex. 3. Find the key sentence in each paragraph of the text.
Ex. 4.State the general idea of each part.
GRAMMAR
Ex. 1. Complete the tables and mark the stress on each word. Guess the noun formed from them.
| Verb | Noun |
| educate improve jog govern spell hesitate arrange |
| Adjective | Noun |
| stupid dark weak similar punctual sad popular |
Ex. 2. Write an adjective (or adjectives) formed from these nouns or verbs.
| danger cWpuos | care | |||||
| attract | thought | |||||
| create | politics | |||||
| cloud | enjoy | |||||
| suit | pain |
Ex. 3. How many of these words can form opposites with the suffix -less?
| wonderful | useful | careful | beautiful | awful |
LISTENING
Listen to the discussion between a teacher and some students about extinction. Then listen again and fill in the gaps in the sentences.
1. The Tasmanian tiger looked like a dog with a………………….. head.
2. It was called a tiger because it had on …………………...... its body.
3. The................. who arrived in Tasmania killed it.
4. The Tasmanian tiger was a very…………… animal.
5. The last one died in................ - in a zoo.
6. The Tasmanian tiger was declared extinct in………………………….
WRITING
You have received a letter from your English-speaking pen friend, Ben.
…I’ve just been to the zoo. What lovely animals are there! Bears, tigers and even sharks! When I look at them in the zoo I can hardly imagine that they could be dangerous or eat other animals…
… What do you think is better for animals – to live in the zoo or in the wild, why? What animals are common in your region? Have you ever seen any animal in the wild? …
Write him a letter and answer his 3 questions.
Write 100–120 words. Remember the rules of letter writing.
UNIT 6
EVOLUTION
VOCABULARY
Ex. 1. Memorize the following words:
• care v 1)заботиться, беспокоить (ся), тревожить (ся) • offer предлагать • convince v убеждать • relate v относится к чему-л. • be related to быть связанным, • float v плавать, держаться на поверхности • descend v происходить • descendant n потомок • rule v править, управлять • gradual a постепенный • heredity n наследственность • afford иметь возможность, быть в состоянии, позволить себе • raise v растить, выращивать • transmit v передавать • breed (bred, bred) v разводить, выращивать • origin n происхождение • evidence n доказательство • put forward v выдвигать (теорию, идеи) • to cope with v справиться с чем-л. • to admit v признавать, допускать.
Ex. 2. Read and translate the following international words. Mind the part of speech:
naturalist n, experiment n, post n, career n, scorpion n, amphibian n, reptile n, argument n, climate] n, race n, 'tendency n, universal a, critical, academy n, expedition n, colleague n, alpine a, plateau n, sensational a, 'tropical a, subtropical a, relief n
Ex. 3. Translate the following a) words with the same root, b) word combinations, c) sentences:
a) nature n, natural a, unnatural a, naturally adv, naturalist n, naturalize v;
b) wild nature, human nature, the forces of nature, the balance of nature, the nature of things, a return to nature, nature conservation, a young naturalists station;
|
natural
с) 1. It is interesting to watch animals living in their natural state. 2. It is natural for a bird to fly. 3. Ch. Darwin developed the theory of evolution and natural selection. 4. Young Darwin liked to read books of the great naturalists. 5. Gerald Durrell is a well-known English naturalist and writer. 6. Her hair curls naturally. 7. She speaks and behaves naturally. 8. He laughs unnaturally. 9. ’’Naturalize” means acclimatize an animal or plant into another (part of a) country. 10. There are many young naturalists stations in our republic.
Ex.4. Form the nouns from the following verbs according to the model. Translate the derivatives:
Model: inform + -ation - информировать
select v — отбирать, distribute v — распределять, attract v — привлекать, preserve v — сохранять, found и — основывать, contribute v — делать вклад, describe v — описывать, represent v — представлять, adapt v — адаптироваться, produce v — производить, explain v — объяснять.
Ex.5. Match the pairs of synonyms from a) and b). Use a dictionary if necessary. Write them down and memorize.
a) evolution n, species n, environment n, trait n, heredity n, origin n, descends, afford v, raise v, rule v, graduate v, cause v, influence v, naturalize v, collect v, transmit v, develop v, put forward v;
b) descent n, inheritance n, surrounding n, development n, kind n, strain n, rear, to be able v, govern v, induce v, affect v, hand down v, gather v, acclimatize v, bring forward v, originate v, finish v, evolve v.
READING
TEXT
CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882)
Charles Darwin was one of the most influential and prolific scientists of the nineteenth century. He has been written about so extensively by twentieth-century historians that a "Darwin industry" of secondary literature has arisen. His grandfather was the celebrated author Erasmus and his father Robert practised medicine very successfully in Shrewsbury. Darwin also studied medicine at Edinburgh from 1825-27, but finding his studies uncongenial, transferred to Cambridge to train as a clergyman. Adam Sedgwick and John Henslow (who suggested the Beagle Voyage) were early scientific influences on Darwin. To the dismay of his father, many of Darwin's activities at Cambridge clearly fell into the category of extra-curricular, including rat-catching, shooting, and beetle collecting: "I will give a proof of my zeal: one day, on tearing off some old bark, I saw two rare beetles and seized one in each hand; then I saw a third and new kind, which I could not bear to lose, so that I popped the one which I held in my right hand into my mouth. Alas it ejected some intensely acrid fluid, which burnt my tongue so that I was forced to spit the beetle out, which was lost, as well as the third one".
Darwin served as a naturalist aboard H.M.S. Beaglefrom 1831-36, visiting South America and the Pacific islands. Darwin collected specimens and observed variations in related species of birds and animals. He read the first edition of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology on the voyage and became convinced of the immensity of geologic time, a time period which would allow natural selection to take place. Upon his return, he married his cousin Emma Wedgwood and published several volumes describing the scientific findings of the Beagle voyage, including The Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle (1839-43), Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various Countries Visited by H.M.S. Beagle (1839), Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands Visited During the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, Together With Some Brief Notices of the Geology of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope (1844), and Geological Observations on South America (1846). Darwin also advanced his original theory of the structure and distribution of Coral Reefs (1842), arguing that atolls developed by the deposition of polyp skeletons on gradually subsiding underlying strata, rather than on submerged volcanic craters at a fixed depth, as Lyell had proposed. He then spent eight years classifying the subclass Cirripedia, or the barnacles. At this time, Darwin began to suffer from the mysterious recurrent illness—perhaps Chagas' disease, hypochondria, overwork, or a neurological disorder—which forced him into a reclusive life at Downe in Kent. He eventually sought relief in hydrotherapathy.
Through observation of the similarities between extinct and related living species in South America, Darwin began to question the orthodox position that species had remained unchanged since first placed on earth by God. In 1837, Darwin started the first of a series of Transmutation Notebooks on the species question which later evolved into the 1842 and 1844 drafts of an essay which Darwin called "my big book" on species, later to be rewritten as The Origin of Species, with the first two chapters eventually forming The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Variation (1868). Darwin's reading of Thomas Malthus's Essay on Population demonstrated to him that population growth would always outstrip food supply, inevitably resulting in competition for limited resources. Those individuals possessing the traits, produced by random variation, which best allowed the organism to survive would pass these traits to their offspring, ensuring the survival of these traits and thereby slowly modifying the species to the extent that intermediate varieties would supplant or exterminate the parent type. For this process, Darwin adopted Herbert Spencer's phrase "survival of the fittest," although the fit should not be seen as qualitatively "better" than other individuals, but simply as those which are naturally selected by the environment to leave more offspring. As Robert Young has shown, Darwin was led to the idea of natural selection by the example of artificial selection of domestic animals in which breeders selected animals for specific desirable traits. In Darwin's scheme, nature simply acts as an unconscious and more perfect selector. Darwin investigated artificial selection in his The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868); he also bred pigeons himself, joined breeding societies, and like his cousin Francis Galton, circulated questionnaires to plant and animal breeders.
In 1858, the English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace sent Darwin an essay from Malaysia entitled "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type" (see the Wallace selections below). Darwin immediately recognized his own views on species transmutation in Wallace's work. Subsequently, Joseph Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged a meeting of the Linnean society at which Wallace's and Darwin's ideas were jointly presented. A year later, Darwin published his Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. The book sold out instantly and at the 1860 Oxford meeting of the BAAS, Thomas Huxley defended Darwin's views against Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and the theologians who were shocked by the implication (not stated by Darwin) that man and apes shared a common origin and that Paley's natural theology with its purposeful creator was no longer tenable. Darwin eventually applied his evolutionary views to mankind in The Descent of Man (1871), stating clearly that man had evolved from lower life forms. It must be pointed out that Darwin had no clear conception of how characters were transmitted from parent to offspring, as knowledge of genetic inheritance had to wait until the twentieth century with the rediscovery of the work of Gregor Mendel. By 1900, Darwin's theories were being disputed from a number of quarters and his pangenesis theory of blending inheritance had to be abandoned in the twentieth century in favour of particulate inheritance by genes.
Darwin's Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex introduced the concept of sexual selection—an intra-species mechanism operating between males and females—which like natural selection modified species over time and produced sexual dimorphism, to the extent, as Darwin points out, that sometimes males and females of the same species had been assigned to different genera by various naturalists. The topic of sexual selection has recently been of great interest, and Nancy Etcoff's Survival of the Prettiest (1999) provides a bibliography of scientific and popular writings on the evolutionary role of beauty and the factors believed to be involved in mate selection in humans and animals, Carl Jay Bajema has in addition compiled an anthology of pre-1900 essays on Evolution by Sexual Selection Theory Prior to 1900 (1984) which supplements Bernard Campbell's edition of modern essays entitled Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, 1871—1971 (l972).
Darwin's final works include On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects ( 1862), The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), Insectivorous Plants (1875), The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants (1875), The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom (1876), The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species (1877), The Power of Movement in Plants (1880), and The Formation of the Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms (1881). Darwin's complete works have been edited by Paul H. Barrett and R.B. Freeman for Pickering and Chatto. Darwin's Autobiography, with deleted passages restored by Nora Barlow, remains a classic of scientific biography.
In spite of continuing bouts of poor health, Darwin lived out another decade in his country home in Kent, enjoying being with his family and working on further minor biological projects. When he died in April 1882, there was a remarkable outpouring of tributes from far and wide and the science community in London quickly arranged, with the family's eventual consent, that Darwin be buried in Westminster Abbey, beneath the monument to Newton. Was he not 'the greatest Englishman since Newton'? Had he not given 'exactly the same stir, the same direction, to all that is most characteristic in the intellectual energy of the nineteenth century, as did Locke and Newton in the eighteenth?
COMPREHENSION
Ex. 1. Translate the Sentences into Russian
1. Charles Darwin was one of the most influential and prolific scientists of the nineteenth century.
2. Darwin also studied medicine at Edinburgh from 1825-27.
3. Darwin served as a naturalist aboard H.M.S. Beaglefrom 1831-36, visiting South America and the Pacific islands.
4. Darwin collected specimens and observed variations in related species of birds and animals.
5. Darwin investigated artificial selection in his The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication.
6. Darwin was led to the idea of natural selection by the example of artificial selection of domestic animals in which breeders selected animals for specific desirable traits.
Ex. 2. Answer the following questions.
1. What education did Charles Darwin get?
2. What was the greatest event of his life, lasting from December 1831 to October 1836? Why?
3. When was Darwin’s main work on species published?
4. Where did he present the topic of sexual selection?
5. What are the weak points in Darwin’s theory Descent of Man?
Ex. 3. Choose the statement you think to be correct.
1. Darwin was born
a) in the family of brilliant lawyers
b) in the family of notable doctors
c) in the family of a poor leather worker
2. Darwin suffered from
a) hypochondria
b) cancer
c) tuberculosis
3. In Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication Darwin investigated
a) the structure and distribution of coral reefs
b) artificial selection
c) the physical laws of muscle contraction
Ex. 4. Review the text.
GRAMMAR
Ex. 1. Complete the conversations. Put in the correct form of each verb.
0 A: Are you ready?
B: I won't be a moment. I'm doing (I / do) my hair.
1 A: Could you tell me your address?
B: Well,…………………………….. (I / live) in a friend's house at the moment.
Luckily..........……......................(I / find) a place of my own now, but I can't move in until next week.
2 A: Is this your CD?
B: No, it isn't mine………………............(I / think)…………(it / belong) to Peter.
3 A: Can I borrow your calculator, please?
B: Well,…………… (I / use) it to work out these figures at the moment……………….. (I / want) to finish doing them, now that……………… (I / start).
4 A: Why can't you wash your dirty plates sometimes?.................................... (you / leave) them in the sink most of the time.
B: OK, sorry. The last few weeks................... (I / have) so little time............................(I / rush) around all the time.
Ex. 2. Read the story and write the missing words. Use one word only in each space.
One day a man was (0) walking past a house in Bournemouth when he (1)………………………......a woman's voice shouting for help. The man (2)...................…………. someone (3) probably trying to murder her. He ran to a phone box and (4) the police. The police came quite quickly, but by now the shouting had (5). However, the man (6).........……………………. quite sure that he (7)…………………………… heard cries for help. When the police (8)………………………….. on the door, there was no answer. So they broke down the door and went in. Inside the house was a woman who had just (9)………………………….. out of the shower. She explained to the police that she had (10)…………………………… singing along to the Beatles song 'Help!'.
Ex. 3. Write a second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Begin with the word in brackets.
0 Our trip to Africa was in October. (We...) We went to Africa in October.
1 We've had ten hours of rain. (It...)
2 It's the right thing to do in my opinion. (I...)
3 Our sofa is in a different place now. (We...)
4 It was breakfast-time when Susan rang. (I...)
5 Their game of badminton is always on Tuesday. (They...)
Ex. 4. Write the correct answer in each space.
0 This isn't my first visit to London. I've been here before.
a) I'm b) I've been c) I was
1 I've got my key. I found it when................................ for something else.
a) I looked b) I've looked c) I was looking
2 Sorry, I can't stop now.......................................... to an important meeting.
a) I go b) I'm going c) I've gone
3 I can't get Tessa on the phone......................................... all afternoon.
a) I'm trying b) I try c) I've been trying
4 The bank told me last week there was no money in my account. it all.
a) I'd spent b) I spent c) I was spending
5 There's a new road to the motorway........................................... it yesterday.
a) They'd opened b) They opened c) They've opened
Ex. 5. Some of these sentences are correct, and some have a word which should not be there. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (V). If it is incorrect, cross the unnecessary word out of the sentence and write it in the space.
0 Martin has changed his mind about next weekend. V
0 We were enjoyed the holiday very much. were
1 Nancy is practicing on the piano.
2 It was lucky that we had been decided to buy our tickets in advance.
3 We were riding our bikes when suddenly I was felt a pain in my leg.
4 We are go camping for three weeks every summer.
5 They have planted some new trees last year.
6 I suddenly realized I had been walking in the wrong direction.
7 Did you know that Anna has been won a prize?
8 No one told me that the goods had arrived the week before.
Ex. 6. Read the news report and write the missing words. Use one word only in each space.
The Maxi-Shop company is (0) going to build a huge new shopping centre on the edge of Millingham, it was announced yesterday. There (1)................................. be at least three hundred shops, including some big department stores. When the project (2)…………………………… complete, there (3) be hundreds of new jobs for local people. But not everyone is happy. 'We're (4) to fight this plan,' said a spokesperson for the local Environment Group. We think what is going (5)…………………………….. happen to our countryside. When shopping malls (6)…………………………….. covered the whole country, there (7)………………………………. be no green fields left. So we're (8)………………………………. a protest meeting tomorrow evening at the town hall. It (9)…………………………….. at half past seven.' Owners of shops in the town centre are also unhappy. 'The new centre (10)……………………............. take our customers away,' said one of them.
Ex. 7. Look at the answers below and write the correct answer in each space.
0 A: Let's go to the carnival, shall we?
B: Yes, good idea. I expect it'll be fun.
a) it'll be b) it's c) it's being
1 A: Could I have a word with you, please?
B: Sorry, I'm in a big hurry. My train...................................... in fifteen minutes.
a) is going to leave b) leaves c) will leave
2 A: Have you decided about the course?
B: Yes, I decided last weekend.................................................... for a place.
a) I apply b) I am to apply c) I'm going to apply
3 A: I'm trying to move this cupboard, but it's very heavy.
B: Well,............................................... you, then.
a) I help b) I'll help c) I'm going to help
4 A: Is the shop open yet?
B: No, but there's someone inside. I think............................................................
a) it opens b) it's about to open c) it will open
5 A: Do you mind not leaving your papers all over the table?
B: Oh, sorry. I'll take them all with me when............
a) I go b) I'll go c) I'm going
6 A: It's a public holiday next Monday.
B: Yes, I know........................................................... anything special?
a) Are you doing b) Do you do c) Will you do
LISTENING
Before you listen
Discuss these questions with your partner.
1. What does evolution mean?
2. Do you know anything about Charles Darwin?
3. What do you know about natural selection?
Listen to a talk about Darwin. Then decide if the following sentences are true or false, according to the speaker.
1. Darwin wrote two famous books.
2. Darwin's theory was very popular in his time.
3. Differences between fossils and modern animals helped him form the Theory of evolution.
4. Natural selection meant the healthiest specimens would survive.
5. An adaptation was inherited and decreased an organism's chances of survival.
WRITING
A DESCRIPTION OF A FAMOUS PEOPLE
Before you write
Ex. 1. Choose one of the famous biologist to write about and list three or four reasons why you think he \ she deserves the title.
Ex. 2. Now write your entry for the competition. Make sure you develop the topic sentences which start each paragraph. Link your paragraphs with one of these phrases:
THE FIRST POINT: First\ Firstly\ First of all\ My first point\reason is that…
SUBSEQUENT POINTS: Secondly\ Thirdly…\Also…\In addition to this…\Another thing\point\reason is …
THE LAST POINT: Finally\Lastly…\As well as all this…\My final point\reason is that…
UNIT 7
GREGOR MENDEL. GENETICS.
VOCABULARY
Ex. 1. Read and memorize the following words:
• duplicate v воспроизводить, повторять в точности • chain n цепь • creature n существо • variety n разнообразие • notice v замечать • split (split, split) v расщеплять (ся) • join v присоединятся • possess v обладать, владеть • attach v укреплять, присоединять • arise v возникать • match v соответствовать • transmit v переносить • determine] v определять • undergo (underwent, undergone) v подвергаться, • fertilize v оплодотворять • inherit v наследовать • occur [э'кэ;] v случаться, происходить • to be in charge of отвечать за что-л.
Ex. 2. Read the following international words. Translate them:
reason n, fix v, collect v, original a, characteristic n, manufacture, separate v, act v, model n, guide n, pigment n, fragment n
Ex. 3. Read correctly the following terms:
chromatin n, chromosome n, gene n, cytoplasm n, ribosome n, melanin n, tyrosinase n, mutation n, mutant.
Ex. 4. Match these words with their definitions.
| A changed | 1 blend |
| В children | 2 altered |
| С combine | 3 hypotheses |
| D theories | 4 ratio |
| E relative amount | 5 offspring |
| F element | 6 successive |
| G think of | 7 particle |
| H find | 8 trace |
| I following | 9 come up with |
Ex. 5. Check you understand the key words.
genetics, inheritance, anatomic, notional, chromosomes, DNA, proteins, genes, genome, ethical, cloning, relativity
Ex. 6. Read the following words of the same root. Determine the part of speech they belong to. Guess their meaning:
a) create, creation, creator, creative, creatively, creature;
b) origin, originate, original, originally, originality.
Ex. 7. Form the nouns from the following verbs with the help of the suffix -ion/-ation. Read and translate them into Russian. Mind the stress in the derivatives:
Model: react v + -ion - reaction n
реагировать реакция
determine v + -ation - determination n
определять определение
dictate, collect, create, originate, separate, form;
Ex. 8. Choose the antonyms of the following words. Translate them:
a) to attach, to arise, to survive, to join, to inherit, to put together, variety, perfect
b) to disjoin, to die, to detach, to take apart, monotony, to disinherit, imperfect, to disappear
TEXT 1
Before you read
Discuss these questions with your partner.
1. Do you have plants at home?
2. Do you have a kitchen garden?
3. What do you know about selection of plants?
4. Have you ever conducted an experiment?
GREGOR MENDEL
Gregor Mendel was born on 20th July, 1822, and died on 6th January, 1884. He was a biologist and botanist whose scientific research showed that inheritance proceeds according to certain scientific laws.
Mendel was a brilliant student and his family encouraged him to study, but they were very poor so Mendel entered a monastery in 1843. There he taught Mathematics, Physics and Greek to high school students. Eight years later, in 1851, the monastery sent him to the University of Vienna where he was able to continue his education. In 1853, he returned to the monastery and began teaching and researching again.
Mendel's theories of heredity based on his work with pea plants are well known to students of Biology. But his findings were so different from the accepted views on heredity at the time that his work was ignored until long after his death. His paper, Experiments in Plant Hybridisation, in which he described how traits were inherited, has become one of the most influential publications in the history of science.
Mendel was the first person to trace the characteristics of successive generations of an organism. In Mendel's day, a number of hypotheses had been suggested to explain heredity. The most popular one was the so-called blending theory. According to this theory, inherited traits blended from generation to generation. For instance, a red rose crossed with a white rose would, over time, produce a pink rose. Another theory put forward by Charles Darwin was called pangenesis. This stated that there were hereditary particles in our bodies, and that these particles were affected by our actions. The altered particles could be inherited by the next generation. These theories were disproved by Mendel.
The first thing he noticed when he began his experiments was that traits were inherited in certain numerical ratios. This observation led him to come up with the idea of the dominance of genes and he tested it in peas. For seven years he crossed thousands of plants to prove the Laws of Inheritance. From his experiments, Mendel developed the basic laws of heredity. Those laws are the following: that traits do not combine, but are passed whole from generation to generation (which disproved the blending theory and Darwin's theory); each member of the parental generation passes on only half of its hereditary information to each offspring (with certain traits dominant over others); and different offspring of the same parents receive different sets of hereditary information.
Mendel's research formed the beginnings of the modern science of genetics. Genetic theory has had a huge impact on our lives. Many diseases, for example haemophilia, are known to be inherited, and family histories can be traced to determine the probability of passing on a hereditary disease. Scientists can now design plants that are easier to grow, or which can produce more food. This practical side of the results of Mendel's research is being used to improve the way we live.
TEXT 2
GENETICS
Genetics is the science of inheritance. It studies the cells and the anatomical and functional characteristics transmitted from parents to children.
A cell is an intelligent organism made from atoms. We are made from more than sixty billion cells. There are cells to make bones, muscles, blood and so on. In the nucleus of every cell there are twenty-three pairs of chromosomes,half of them are from the mother and the other half are from the father. Chromosomes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and protein. Each chromosome contains many genes in its DNA. The DNA carries the instructions to construct a human being.
Each species has its own set of genes. The different combinations of genes determine the characteristics of each individual. With the exception of identical twins, nobody in the world has the same combination of genes and this is what makes everyone a unique individual. What all humans do have in common is the genome, that is, we all have the same number of chromosomes and the same genetic material. There are no superior or inferior genes.
Genetic manipulation refers to human intervention in the design or function of the cells. Many people oppose it. They argue that the main problem is that man can be both a master and a monster. At an institute of pharmaceutical engineering in Virginia, USA, scientists injected pigs with a human gene that produces a protein called Factor VIII. This protein makes the blood thicker and helps patients with hemophilia. The fourth generation of these pigs will possibly produce enough Factor VIII in their milk to supply the world's demand. On the other hand, through genetic manipulation people could select spermatozoids and decide the sex of their future babies. This alters the course of nature and for many people it has ethical implications.
Cloning is another important topic. From a few cells scientists can produce cartilage. This will probably soon help people who don’t have a part of their face, like an ear, after an accident. But in the future we could clone and manipulate people.
Our problem is always the same. People disagree about what is ethical and what is not.
COMPRIHENSION
Ex. 1. Read text 1 and choose the best title for each paragraph. There is one title which you do not need to use.
| PARAGRAPH 1 ……….. PARAGRAPH 2………… PARAGRAPH 3 ………... PARAGRAPH 4 ………... PARAGRAPH 5 ……….. PARAGRAPH 6 ……….. | A The experiment В His studies С Genetics today D A modern science E An important paper F Different theories G Gregor Mendel, the scientist |
Ex. 2. Read text 2 carefully, and then answer the multiple choice questions.
1. In the nucleus of every cell there are
a) 46 chromosomes
b) 50 chromosomes
c) 54 chromosomes
2. The characteristics of each individual depend on
a) the combination the genes
b) the genome
c) the chromosome
3. Which of the following best describes genetic manipulation?
a) heart transplant
b) cloning
c) plastic surgery
Ex. 3. Translate the Sentences into Russian.
1. His scientific research showed that inheritance proceeds according to certain scientific laws.
2. Mendel's theories of heredity based on his work with pea plants are well known to students of Biology.
3. Inherited traits blended from generation to generation.
4. Traits were inherited in certain numerical ratios.
5. This observation led him to come up with the idea of the dominance of genes and he tested it in peas.
6. Mendel's research formed the beginnings of the modern science of genetics.
Ex. 4. Discuss these questions with your partner.
1. How are characteristics passed on from generation to generation?
2. How does modern science change this? Why?
Ex. 5. Review the text.
SPEAKING
Ex. 1. Debate on advantages and disadvantages of genetic manipulation. Use the following information as a guide.
Advantages
- Restore some parts of your body
- Can help to treat an illness
- Choose future baby’s sex
Disadvantages
- Expensive
- Can produce population imbalance
Example:
Student A: Genetic manipulation can restore some parts of your body.
Student B: Yes, but it’s very expensive. Only rich people can do that.
Ex. 2. Prepare a short presentation on the topic: 'Theories of inheritance'.
Talk about:
• Mendel's theory
• Mendel's experiment
• theories that were di
