Section II. The achievements of science and technology in the industrial epoch

Theme 2.1. The development of technology and scientific knowledge in the middle of the 18^th – 70`s of the 19^th century

The middle of the 18^th century has marked by acceleration of scientific and technological development, which led to the industrial revolution. Its first stage began in the 70`s of the 18<sup>th</sup> century and was associated with the spread of new working machines, which were manually operated, in the English textile industry. The second stage falls on the 80–90`s of the 18^th century and is connected with the creation of the steam engine of double-action and multi-purpose by James Watt's. The decisive third stage – the first two decades of the 19^th century: the technological developments in the field of metallurgy and metalworking. During the fourth stage (the 20–30`s of the 19^th century) a revolution in the means of transport and communication takes place. The use of steam locomotives, steamships and the telegraph begins. The fifth stage covers the end of the 30–40's of the 19^th century and is linked with the introduction of technical improvements in mining and agriculture.

At the beginning of the 19^th century other advanced countries of the world joined in the industrial revolution. But each of these steps in behind 10–20 years from England. Machines have changed the prevailing method of production so far. In the context of machine industry technical equipment, technology and organization of production process were free of rigid attitude on the ability of the employee. Technical revolution in mechanical engineering has become a major stimulus for the development of metallurgy. Englishman Henry Bessemer invented a converter steel production method, which replaced the old system of puddling. The transition to the Bessemer technology made it possible to significantly increase the production of metal and reduce the cost of steel. The technical inventions by French engineer Pierre Martin also allowed significantly increase the production of metals from ores, located in Europe and the United States.

At the beginning of the 19^th century the creation of the steam railway, was started, which passed three pillars: 1) the emergence and spread of railways; 2) changing the way pull; 3) development of specially adapted for railway track cars. Work in these areas was carried out simultaneously in many countries of the world. The generation of the steam railway transport belongs to the Englishman George Stephenson, who first examined the rolling stock and the way in indissoluble connection. His first steam locomotive «Blucher» he designed in 1814, and ten years later 16 different locomotives (including the famous «Rocket» – 1929) transported cargo and passengers.

First in France and then in the United States the design and construction of the paddle steamers engaged inventor Robert Fulton. In 1807 he built the Steamship «Claremont», which sailed on the Hudson River. Czech inventor Josef Ressel in 1929 in Italy by means of a patron Fontana built the first ship with a screw propeller «Owl», which shuttled between Trieste and Venice.

In 1832 the Russian scientist Peter Schilling made the first telegram transmission of 10 words using the electromagnetic Telegraph. Finally, the electric telegraph has established itself as the most advanced form of communication after the work of Professor Charles Wheatstone and English and American inventor Samuel Morse, who created a special alphabet.

In the middle of the 19^th century the application of mathematical analysis is expanding. Its use is becoming a prerequisite for development of continuous mediums mechanics, the theory of electricity and magnetism, thermodynamics, theory of elasticity. The development of mathematical physics had an impact on the expansion of the theoretical foundations of mathematical analysis. This leads to the development of the theory of partial differential equations and, especially, of potential theory. The German scientists Carl Friedrich Gauss, Dirichlet Peter, French Augustine Cauchy, Jean Baptiste Fourier, and the Englishman George Green took an active part in the development of these branches of mathematics.

By the 30`s years of the 19^th century mechanics of machines stood out as an independent science. Leonhard Euler and Joseph Louis Lagrange engaged the research in the field of theoretical mechanics. In 1831, English scientist Michael Faraday found electromagnetic induction. The study of the field began. In 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements and composed the corresponding table.