2020-06-08
174
The first reference to Portland cement concrete reinforced with steel or iron bars appeared in November 1855 in the magazine “The Engineer” in which Francois Coignet described his experiments with concrete.
In 1861 Coignet published a book on concretes of different mixtures placed in situ and insisted on the influence of the water-cement ratio on the strength of concrete. In this book he also described his method of using reinforced concrete slabs. In the same book Coignet described methods for the construction of pipes, reservoirs and walls of concrete reinforced with metal sheets, bars and chains. Coignet took out no patent for his ideas: he was interested only in the advancement of science.
At the same time as Coignet was working on his reinforced concrete roof, another inventor was constructing his boat which appeared in the Paris Exhibition and was probably the first application of reinforced concrete. A few years later a French gardener Monier had the idea of replacing wooden flower-boxes by those made of an iron mesh covered with cement, and he took out a patent for it.
The greatest development of reinforced concrete construction took place at the end of the 19th century. In Britain, as well as in the United States, early interest in reinforced concrete was for fireproof construction. The first results of tests of reinforced concrete beams were published in 1877. Since that time the development of reinforced concrete work gas made good progress. Many bridges, tall buildings with reinforced concrete frames, shell roofs, industrial structures are being built throughout the world of reinforced concrete. (1700)
XI. Read the text and render it in English.
Bricks
Bricks are still the most popular from of walling unit for domestic construction. There is a wide range of bricks available, varying in the materials used, method of manufacture and form of brick.
|
|
|
Bricks are classified into three different ways. Varieties and functions: a) common bricks – suitable for general building work but generally of poor appearance; b) facing bricks – specially made or selected to give an attractive appearance; c) engineering bricks – dense and strong semi-vitreous for absorption and strength. Qualities: a) internal bricks – suitable for internal use only; b) ordinary bricks – durable for external use; c) special bricks - durable in situations of extreme exposure.
Types of bricks include solid bricks which do not have holes, cavities or depressions; perforated bricks have holes not exceeding 25 per cent of gross volume of brick; cellular bricks may have frogs or cavities exceeding 25 per cent of gross volume of brick.
The usual brick size is 215x102.5x65 mm. Bricks of ordinary quality must be well–fired and free from deep or extensive cracks and from damage to edges and corners.
Bricks are made from clays composed mainly of silica and alumina, with small amounts of lime, iron, manganese and other substances. The different types of clay produce a wide variety of colours and textures. Most clay bricks are kiln-burnt, either in a Hoffman kiln or a tunnel kiln.
There are types of bricks available apart from clay. Calcium silicate bricks (sandlime and flintlime) are made from lime and sand or siliceous gravel moulded under heavy pressure in an autoclave. Fire bricks are made from refractory clay. Facing bricks may be machine-made or hand-made to a variety of colours and textures. (1600)
Тема 3. Деловые поездки. Заказ билетов. (Business trips)
I. Read the text and answer the questions:
1. Why do business people travel much today?
2. Why is it important to choose a comfortable hotel?
3. What facilities can you find in a modern hotel?
4. What means of transport do businessmen use more often?
5. What are the rules for air travellers?
Business Trips
Never before in the history of the world have businessmen traveled as much as they do today. It is not surprising because we are living in a world of growing international trade and expanding economic and technical cooperation. Though it is fascinating for tourist travelling, it has become the most tiring of all occupations for many businessmen and experts. Therefore, choosing a comfortable hotel to stay at is a matter of big importance. There are plenty of good hotels, motels and guest houses in the world, which are conveniently located in major business centers.
Many developing countries, such as India, Egypt, Nigeria, Lybia, etc. have excellent hotels. Their numerous facilities include both large and small cocktail bars, barber's shops and conference halls equipped with simultaneous, multilingual translation systems. There are parking areas which can accommodate a lot of cars. It might be useful for travelling businessmen and tourists to know that tailor shops, shoe repair shops, laundry and dry cleaning services are available for guests. People in the office help guests to book train or steamer tickets and rent a car. They are also ready to give all necessary information. Nowadays people who go on business mostly travel by air as it is the fastest means of travelling. Passengers are requested to arrive at the airport 2 hours before the departure time on international flights and an hour on domestic flights, as there must be enough time to complete the necessary airport formalities. Passengers must register their tickets, weigh and register the luggage.
|
|
|
Most airlines have at least two classes of travel: first class and economy class which is cheaper. Each passenger of more than 2 years of age has a free luggage allowance. Generally this limit is 20kg for economic class passenger and 30kg for first class passenger. Excess luggage must be paid for except for some articles that can be carried free of charge. Each passenger is given a boarding card to show at departure gate and again to the stewardess when boarding the plane. Watch the electric sign flashes when you are on board, when the "Fasten Seat Belts" sign goes on do it promptly and also obey the "No Smoking" signal. Do not forget your personal effects when leaving the plane.
II. Read the dialogues and try to memorize them *
Travelling by train
1
A: When does the London train leave, please?
B: 9.25. Platform 3.
A: What time does it reach London?
B: You should be there at 11.31, but you may be a bit late.
A: Do I have to change?
B: Yes. You change at Lewes and East Croydon.
2
A: Which train do I take for Victoria, please?
B: 9.28. This end of Platform 2.
A: When does it get in?
B: It gets there at 11.34.
A: Must I change?
B: No, it’s a through train.
3
R. = reservation clerk, French Railways, C= Carol
R. Good afternoon, French Railways.
C. Good afternoon. I’d like to know the times of trains from Paris to Bordeaux.
R. Um… Can you tell me when you want to travel?
C. Yes, on Wednesday, arriving in Bordeaux by about 1 p.m.
R. There’s a TVG which arrives in Bordeaux at exactly 1 p.m.
C. Oh, good. Could you tell me when it leaves Paris?
R. Yes, it leaves at 10 a.m.
C. So the journey takes three hours?
R. Yes, that’s right.
C. And do you know which station it leaves from?
R. Yes, from Paris Montparnasse.
C. Thank you. Oh, just one more question. Do I need to make a reservation?
R. Yes, it’s advisable.
C. OK. I’ll check with my boss, then phone you back. Thank you for your help.
R. You are welcome.
III. Complete the two conversations using the following phrases:
- Is it necessary to change?
- The «Yantar» train arrives in Moscow at exactly 11 a.m.
- Thank you for your help.
- No, it’s a through train.
- What time does it arrive?
- Can you tell me when you want to travel?
- Yes, that’s right.
- Yes, it leaves at 12.30 p.m.
- Do I need to make a reservation?
1.
A. Which platform is for London bridge, please?
B. 9.27 from Platform 1.
A...................................................................
B. It takes roughly 2 hours so you’ll arrive just before 11.30.
A............................................................................................
B. No. There is no need to change.
2.
A. Good morning. I’d like to know the times of trains from Kaliningrad to Moscow.
B...............................................................................................................................
A. Yes, on Monday arriving by the next noon.
B..............................................................................................................................
A. Oh, good. Could you tell me when it leaves Kaliningrad?
B.....................................................................................................
A. So. The journey takes more than 23 hours.
B.....................................................................................................
A. Must I change?
B....................................................................................................
A....................................................................................................
B. Yes, it’s advisable.
A....................................................................................................
B. You’re welcome.
|
|
|
IV. Read the dialogues and try to memorize them *
