2014-02-04
6801
English Vowels.
English Consonants.
Articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants depend on the three articulatory criteria. They are:
(1) the presence or absence of an articulatory obstruction to the air stream in the larynx or in the supra-glottal cavities;
(2) the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension;
(3) the force of exhalation.
On the basis of these criteria consonants may be defined as sounds in the production of which:
(a) there is an articulatory obstruction to the air stream (complete, incomplete, the combination of the two /ʧ,ʤ/, intermittent);
(b) muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction;
(c) the exhaling force is rather strong.
[стр.30 - 36]
Vowels may be defined as sounds in the production of which:
(a) there is no articulatory obstruction to the air stream;
(b) muscular tension is diffused more or less evenly throughout the supra-glottal part of the speech;
(c) the exhaling force is rather weak.
[стр.41-49]
In the process of speech sounds are modified. That means that they are influenced by the articulatory neighbouring sounds. The modifications of sounds are necessary to learn. These modifications are:
(a) Assimilation
(b) Accommodation
(c) Vowel-reduction
(d) Elision
(a) Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant.
Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living: let you out [,let ju ‘aut ->,letʃu’aut].
Assimilation which tool place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical: (sj -> ʃ, zj -> ʒ, [‘preʃə], [‘meʒə] - Historical yod coalescence).
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The present-day pronunciation of the words session, question, nature, occasion results from the historical assimilation of [sj], [tj], [zj] in ['kwesjən], ['naetjər], [ə'kaezjən] to ['kwesʧən], ['neɪʧə], [ə'keɪʒ(ə)n].
As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is concerned it can be:
1) progressive, when the first of the two joined sounds influenced the second and makes it similar to itself, e.g. in desks, pegs, the sounds [k] and [g] make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless [k] in [desks] and to the voiced [g] in [pegz];
2) regressive, when the second of the two consonants makes the first similar to itself, e.g. in the combination at the the alveolar [t] becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental [ð] which follows it;
3) double when the first and the second consonants influence each other, e.g. twice [t] is rounded under the influence of [w] and [w] is partly devoiced under the influence of the voiceless [t].
Also assimilation can be:
1) complete, when the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one, e.g. horse-shoe = horseshoe, cup-board = cupboard
2) incomplete, when two adjoining sounds are partially assimilated, e.g. tree, try, place.
Assimilation can be obligatory and non-obligatory, e.g. tells you [‘telʒ ‘ju], this year [‘ðiʃ ‘jɪə]
Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant. For example, in the word gooseberry [s] became voiced under the influence of the next voiced [b] - regressive assimilation. In the combination what’s this the voiced [z] became voiceless under the influence of the preceding voiceless [t] - progressive assimilation.
In the process of speech the sonorants [m, n, l, r, j, w] are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes [s, p, t, k], e.g. plate, slowly, twice, cry. In this case partial progressive assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords in English.
There are cases where regressive assimilation may fully affect the work of the vocal cords, for example: blackboard - no voicing of [k], setback - no voicing of [t], these people - no devoicing of [z].
Two obligatory assimilations are: used to and have to (must), e.g.: I used to wear a suit [ai ‘ju:st tə ‘weə ə,sju:t] but I used two [ai ‘ju:zd ‘tu:] (main verb), I have to be early [ai ‘haef tə bi,ɜ:li] but I have two [ai ‘haev ‘tu:] (main verb).
(b) Accommodation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring vowel, e.g. tune, keen, tea, cool.
Accommodation affects the position of the lips and the position of the soft palate.
1) When it affects the position of the lips, labialization or lip rounding of consonants appears before a rounded back vowel «o» [ fall, tall ] and «u» [ moon, cool, pool ]. The spreading of the lips appears when consonants are followed or preceded by front vowels «e» and «i» [ tea, meat; but sit, miss ].
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2) When it affects the position of the soft palate, nasalization, palatalization and aspiration appear.
When the soft palate lows and the air goes through the nasal cavity, the vowels having neighbouring [m] and [n] sounds become nasalized, like morning, man, coming.
English stops are usually palatalized before front close vowels «e» and «i», like peat, type.
And the last in initial position stressed syllables are accompanied by aspiration, like port, talk, cat.
But if a vowel follows, the consonant remains: first of all, past in time.
(c) Vowel-reduction is the reduction of the vowel length in connected speech.
Vowel length may depend on a number of linguistic factors:
(1) position of the vowel in a word,
(2) word stress,
(3) the number of syllables in a word,
(4) the character of the syllabic structure,
(5) sonority,
(6) tempo and rhythm of speech.
(1) Positional dependence of length can be illustrated by the following example:
be - bead - beat
we - weed - wheat
tie - tied - tight
In the terminal position a vowel is the longest, it shortens before a voiced consonant, it is the shortest before a voiceless consonant.
(2) A vowel is longer in a stressed syllable than in an unstressed one:
a forecast [‘fɔːkɑːst] прогноз - to forecast [fɔː’kɑːst] предсказывать погоду
In the verb [ɔː] is shorter than in the noun, though it may be pronounced with [ɔː] equally long.
(3) If we compare a one-syllable word and a word consisting of more than one syllable, we may observe that similar vowels are shorter in a polysyllabic word. Thus in the word verse [ɜ:] is longer than in university.
(4) In words with V, CV, CCV type of syllable the vowel length is greater than in words with VC, CVC, CCVC type of syllable. For example, [ɜ:] is longer in err (V type), than in earn (VC type), [ju:] is longer in dew (CV type), than in duly (CVCV type).
(5) Vowels of low sonority are longer than vowels of greater sonority. It is so, because the speaker unconsciously makes more effort to produce greater auditory effect while pronouncing vowels of lower sonority, thus making them longer. For example, [i] is longer than [a:], etc.
(6) Besides vowel length depends on the tempo of speech: the higher the rate of speech the shorter the vowels.
F.e., Has she done it?
(d) Elision is a complete loss of one or some sounds in a rapid or careless speech. [стр.180]
Typical mistakes of Russian people:
| correct pronunciation | incorrect pronunciation |
| birthday [θ] | birthday [ð] |
| Medicine [s] | medicine [z] |
| anecdote [k] | anecdote [g] |
| Let’s go [lets] | Let’s go [letz] |
Contracted forms of verbs is and has may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonants.
1) What is this? = What’s this? [ z becomes s ]
2 ) Jack has done it. = Jack’s done it. [ z becomes s ]
