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Colloquial Neutral Literary

Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.

Plan

  1. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary.
  2. Terms.
  3. Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete words.
  4. Barbarisms and foreign words.
  5. Slang.
  6. Jargonisms.
  7. Professionalisms.
  8. Dialect words.
  9. Vulgarisms.

1. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary.

The word-stock of the English language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be considered interdependent. In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, the whole word-stock of English can be divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer, and the colloquial layer.

The aspect of the neutral words is in their universal character: they are unrestricted in use and can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. This layer is the most stable of all. Neutral words have no local or dialectal character. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Neutral words are conspicuous for their faculty to produce new meanings and to generate new stylistic variants. Neutral words are mostly monosyllabic. This is explained by the historical development of English, when most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes. As a result, conversion emerged as the most productive means of word-building. As distinct from all other groups, the neutral group of words has no specific colouring, whereas both literary and colloquial have a definite stylistic connotation.

Literary words are mainly used in writing and in polished speech. Though it is difficult to name the objective features characteristic of literary words, we can always distinguish a literary word from a colloquial one. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the literary stratum of words. Literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary and colloquial, can be formed, which stand in contrast to each other.

Consider the following examples:

- lassie girl maiden;

- chap fellow associate;

- go on continue proceed;

- go ahead begin commence.

Colloquial words have a lively spoken character, so they are used in non-official speech, they are very vivid and suggestive in character. They are not homogeneous. Some of them are close to non-standard colloquial groups, such as jargonisms, professionalisms, etc. Other words approach the neutral bulk of the English vocabulary. But they have not lost their colloquial associations and therefore remain in the colloquial stratum. Such examples when the colloquial words lose their non-standard character and pass into the neutral vocabulary are quite numerous.

It should be kept in mind that though there is no immediate correlation between the written and the oral type of speech on the one hand, and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, the use of the colloquial words is associated with the oral type of communication. So we shall find literary words in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the type of discourse copying everyday oral communication - in the dialogue or interior monologue of a prose work.

But when we say that a text is literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words in it have a correspondent stylistic marking. Words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its vocabulary being neutral. A stylistically coloured word is like a drop of paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it. This comparison was suggested by Academician L.Shcherba.

Both literary and colloqiual words may be general (common) or special. Let us consider some specific subgroups.

2. Terms.

Terms are words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, engineering. A term has a direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art. A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to the essential quality of the thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of his own conceptualization.

Though terms are mostly used in special works dealing with a specific branch of science, their use is not limited only to this. We can come across them in other styles – newspaper, publicist and others. But in this case their function changes. In a work of creative prose a term may acquire a stylistic function and become a stylistic device. This happens when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized at the same time. Thus, when we find a term in belles-letters works, we should understand that it serves cither to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. For example, in the novel The Citadel by A.Cronin medical terms are frequently used, showing the life of a doctor, and are quite naturally introduced into the contents of the narration. In this case the terms do not need any special explanation. More than that, they may be to some extent neglected if not understood. But in some texts terms are used as a stylistic device, as in the following extract from Thackeray:

“What a fool Rawdon Crawley has been, “Clump replied, “to go and marry a governess. There was something about the girl too “.

“Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure, famous frontal development, “Squill remarked”.

The terminological expression “frontal development”, preceded by the word “famous”, acquires a specific stylistic function due to the fact that it is used both in the terminological aspect and in its logical meaning “the breast of a woman”. Here a humorous effect is achieved.

There is an interesting process going on in the development of any language. As general education grows and science and engineering develop, many words that used to be terms have lost their quality as terms and passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary, thus undergoing determinization. A good example is with the words “radio” and “television” which are in common use now. As we can see, they have lost their terminological meaning.

3. Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete words.

In every period of development of any literary language we can find words which are at different stages of usage - from full vigour, through disappearing state, to death, i.e. complete dropping out of the language. Professor I.Galperin distinguishes three stages in the process of aging words:

1. When a word becomes rarely used, it is called obsolescent i.e. it gradually passes out of general use. Here belong morphological forms going back to the earlier stages in the language development, such as the pronoun thou and its forms - thee, thy and thine; the corresponding verbal ending -est and the verb-forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); the ending -(e)th instead of-(e)s and the pronoun ye. Many French borrowings kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods also belong here, e.g. a pallet (a straw mattress); a palfrey (a small horse), etc.

2. Words that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the speaking community are called obsolete, e.g. methinks (it seems to me); nay (no).

3. This group may be called archaic proper. Here we find words which are no longer recognizable in Modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecog­nizable, e.g. troth (faith); a losel (a worthless, lazy fellow).

We should mention here a special class of words which are wrongly classed as archaic, namely historical words. They denote historical events, customs, material objects, which are no longer in use, e.g. thane, yeoman, goblet, etc. As a matter of fact, such words never disappear from the language. They are historical terms denoting the objects and events which have passed into oblivion. They have no synonyms whereas archaic words may be replaced by modern synonyms.

Archaic words are mostly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. They carry a special volume of information adding to the logical aspect of the communication. In fact, the characters of historical novels speak the language of the period the writer and the reader live in, and the skill of the writer consists in colouring the language with such obsolete and obsolescent words that most naturally interweave with the texture of the modern literary language. A recognized master of such style was Walter Scott.

In addition to the above-mentioned function, archaic words have other functions in other styles:

1. They are used in the style of official documents. They are used here to maintain the exactness of the expression, so necessary for this style.

2. They can also be used for satirical purposes. Thus, in Bernard Shaw's play How He Lied to Her Husband a young man of eighteen, describing his feelings towards "a female of thirty-seven" expresses himself in a language which is-ftot in conformity with the situation. His words are: "Perfect love casteth off fear".

3. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations may be used for creating an elevated effect. Language is specially moulded to suit a solemn occasion: all kinds of stylistic devices are used, among them archaisms.

4. Barbarisms and foreign words.

Inthe vocabulary of Modem English we can find a considerable number of words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not been completely assimilated by the English language. They preserve the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. Most of such words have synonyms in English, e.g. chic (stylish); bon mot (a clever witty saying); en passant (in passing); ad infinitum (to infinity), etc.

One should distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper. The former are words which have already become part of the English language, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. In the text foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature. Barbarisms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they have a special load of stylistic information.

Foreign words, as well as barbarisms, are widely used in language with various aims:

1. To supply local colour. For example, in Vanity Fair by W.Thackeray the author depicts a German town in which there lives a boy with a remarkable appetite. By introducing several German words the author gives an indirect description of the peculiarities of the German menu and the environment in general: The little boy, too, we observed, had a famous appetite, and consumed schinken, and braten, and kartoffeln, and cranberry jam with a gallantry that did honour to his nation.

2. To build up the stylistic device of the so-called represented speech. The use of a word, or a phrase, or a sentence in the reported speech of a local inhabitant helps to reproduce his actual words, manner of speech and the environment in general. E.g., in The Sea Eagle by James Aldridge in the sentence And the Cretans were very willing to feed and hide the Inglisi the last word is meant to reproduce the actual speech of the local people by introducing a word actually spoken by them and which is easily understood because of its root.

3. To show that a character actually speaks a foreign language. The skilful use of one or two foreign words will be enough to create the impression of an utterance made in a foreign language, as in the example from "The Crusaders" by Stefan Heym: "Deutsche Soldaten - a little while ago you received a sample of American strength ". The two words — Deutsche Soldaten - are sufficient to create the impression that the actual speech was made in German, as in real life it would have been.

4. Barbarisms, when used in the belles-lettres style have an exactifying function. E.g., when the French "Au revoir" is used in English as a formal sign of greeting, it will either carry the exact meaning of the words it is composed of, namely "See you again soon", or have another stylistic function. Consider the following example: She had said "Au revoir!" Not "Good-bye!" (G.) The formal and conventional salutation has become a meaningful sentence. 5. In publicistic style foreign words and barbarisms give the passage a touch of authority. The person who uses so many foreign words and phrases is obviously a very educated person, the reader thinks, and therefore "a man who knows", e.g. Yet en passant I would like to ask here (and answer) what did Rockefeller think of Labour... (Dr.)

5. Slang.

The problem of slang is a controversial one in modem linguistics. There is no unanimity among linguists as to what words should be considered slang. The general opinion is, however, that any new coinage that has not gained recognition in Standard English is called slang. The Times newspaper gives the following illustration of slang: leggo (let go); serge (sergeant); "I've got a date with that girl Morris tonight". But Professor Galperin objects to it saying that leggo is a phonetic impropriety caused by careless rapid speaking: serge is a vulgar equivalent of the full form of the word; date is a widely recognized colloquial equivalent of the bookish word rendez-vouz.

It is common knowledge that one of the most conspicuous features of slang is the need for continuous renovation. It never grows stale. If a slang word or phrase becomes stale, it is replaced by a new slangism. It is claimed that this satisfies the natural desire for fresh, newly created words and expressions, which attribute to an utterance emotional colouring and a suggestive evaluation. Professor Galperin suggests that the term "slang" should be used for those forms of the English vocabulary which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonetically, morphologically or lexically. The term "slang" should also be used to specify some elements which may be called over-colloquial.

Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of vocabulary of a language. H.Wentworth and S.Flexner write: "Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest the escape from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal. Also, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure joy of making sounds, or even for a need to make attraction by making noise. The sheer newness and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure".

Whatever the viewpoints on slang are, all agree that slang is:

1) highly emotive and expressive;

2) apt to lose its originality;

3) easily replaced by new formations;

4) substandard in status;

5) apt to form long chains of synonyms.

It should also be noted that the substandard status of slang words and phrases, through universal usage, can be raised to the standard colloquial, e.g. pal, chum, crony, for "friend", booze for "liquor", "how's tricks" for "how's life", etc.

When used in a work of emotive prose, slang serves as an indication gf the informal character of communication, makes the narration more yjvid and expressive.

6. Jargonisms.

Jargonisms are words that exist in almost any language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group.

Jargonisms are generally new words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Many of them originated from the thieves' jargon and served to conceal the actual significance of the answer from the uninitiated. Their main function was to be secretive. Thus, the word grease means "money", loaf means "head", a tiger hunter is "a gambler", a lexer is "a student preparing for a law course".

Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and the US almost any group of people has its own jargon, e.g. the jargon of thieves and vagabonds; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others. Science jargon is a secret code, it is not understandable to the common reader and needs to be translated or explained. Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is easily understood by the English-speaking community and is only regarded as something not quite regular.

There is a common jargon and there are also special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. Common jargon belongs to all groups of people and is easily understood by everybody. That is why it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between slang and jargon. When a jargonism becomes common, it has passed onto a higher stage and becomes slang or colloquial, e.g. hummen "a false arrest", man and wife "knife", manany "a sailor who is always putting off a job or work" (from the Spanish manana "tomorrow").

Jargonisms, like many other groups of the non-literary layer, sometimes overcome the resistance of the language law-givers and purists and enter the standard vocabulary. Such words as kid, fun, bluff, fid, humbug, formery slang words or jargonisms, are now considered common colloquial. Used in a prose work, jargonisms create an atmosphere of informality, secrecy, belonging to a certain social group.

7. Professionalisms.

These are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings. And, covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, they offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality.

Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the literary layer of words. Here are some examples of professionalisms: tin-fish "submarine"; block-buster "a bomb which can destroy blocks of big buildings"; piper "a specialist who decorates pastry with the help of a cream-pipe"; borer, digger "driller".

Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the meaning. In emotive prose such units are used to depict the natural speech of the character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology. So the device of speech-characterisation is so widely used in emotive prose. The use of professionalisms forms the most conspicuous element of this literary device.

8. Dialect words.

Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use in generally confined to a definite locality. There is a definite similarity in function in the use of slang, cockney and any other form of non-literary English and that of dialectal words. In Great Britain four major groups of dialects are distinguished: Lowland Scotch, Northern, Midland (Central) and Southern. In the USA three major dialectal varieties are distinguished: New England, Southern and Midwestern (Central, Midland). Dialects markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them. They also differ on the lexical level. They have their own names for locally existing phenomena and supply local synonyms for the words accepted by the language in general.

Dialectal words differ in their nature. Some of them have become so familiar in standard colloquial English that they are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard literary language, e.g. lass "a girl or beloved girl"; lad "a boy or a young man"; fash "trouble, cares". Other words are easily recognized as corruptions of standard English words, e.g. ninny "honey"; tittie "sister"; cutty "a naughty girl or woman".

Dialectal words are only to be found in emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. Their use is confined to the function of characterizing personalges through their speech. They carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong, and characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education, etc.

9. Vulgarisms.

These are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally omitted and avoided in polite conversation. History of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. In Shakespearean times people were much more linguistically frank in their communication than in the age of Enlightment, or the Victorian era, famous for its prudish and reserved manners. Unfortunately, in modem fiction these words have gained legitimacy: words which were labelled vulgar in the 18th and 19th centuries are considered as such no more. Such intensifiers as bloody, damned, cursed, hell of, formerly not used in literature and conversation, are now widely used in written and in oral speech and, due to their constant repetition, have lost much of their emotive impact and substandard quality.

Maxwell Perkins, working with the 1929 edition of Hemingway's novel A Farviell to Arms found that the publishers didn't include about a dozen words which they considered vulgar. But Perkins allowed half of them back, such as son of a bitch, whore, whorehound, etc. In contemporary West European and American prose all words, formerly considered vulgar for public use (including the four-letter ones), are even approved by the existing moral and ethical standards of society and censorship.

The function of vulgarisms in emotive prose is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like.

Literature:

  1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. – М., 1990.
  2. Єфімов Л.П., Ясінецька О.А. Стилістика англійської мови і дискурсивний аналіз. Учбово-методичний посібник. – Вінниця, 2004.
  3. Мороховский А.Н., Воробьев О.П. и др. Стилистика английского языка. – К., 1991.
  4. Трибуханчик А.М. Курс стилістики англійської мови (для денного відділення). – Ніжин,2006.
  5. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. – М, 1981.
  6. Kukharenko V.A. A Book of Practice in Stylistics: A manual. – Vinnytsia, 2003.

Questions for Control:

  1. What is the correlation between literary and neutral, neutral and colloquial words and phrases?
  2. How should we interpret terms in various functional styles?
  3. In what way do words grow old? Comment on the various degrees of aging of words.
  4. What is the author's purpose in using barbarisms and foreign
    words? Do they perform the same stylistic function?
  5. What are the reasons for the emergence of slang? What are its characteristic features?
  6. What kinds of jargon do you know? Why is it used in works of creative prose?
  7. Do professionalisms differ from jargonisms? Characterize their function in belles-lettres works.
  8. How should the reader interpret the presence of dialectal speech units in emotive prose? What additional information do they convey?
  9. How can you account for the use of vulgarisms in belles-lettres works?

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