Scandinavian invasion

Middle English vocabulary

Foreign element of OE vocabulary

Among borrowings Latin and Celtic words are distinguished: in OE about 400 Latin words are to be found which were borrowed at various times and in various ways.

A number of Latin loans belonged to the so-called popular borrowings in the result of a concrete lively contact between the two peoples. Other words belonged to the so-called bookish or scientific borrowings.

Popular Latin words were borrowed before the settlement of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons when the Anglo-Saxons lived on the continent and were Romanized. Therefore they are called continental borrowings; they are common to other Germanic languages. To this group also belong some commercial words:

OE ceapian (to sell) < Latin cauponari < caupo (petty) and onis (trader).

OE pund < Latin pondo (pound).

Inch < OE ynce (ynke < Latin uncia)

Mod.E mint < OE mynet < Latin moneta.

Here belong some other cultural terms, connected with food and dishes:

OE cōc < Latin cocus, coqus (cook)

OE cycene < Latin coquina [kokwina]

OE disc < Latin discus

OE cuppe < Latin cuppa (cup).

Some words connected with construction:

OE cealc (chalk) < Latin calx (calceum)

OE tiʒle < Latin tegula (tile – черепица)

OE pōle < Latin palus (pole – столб)

OE stræt < Latin strata (strata via – мощеная дорога)

The most considerable influence on the English vocabulary was due to the contact with the Romans at the end of 6th century when the English were Christianized (507 – 600). The adoption of a new religion brought into English many ecclesiastical (церковные) terms:

OE deofol < Latin diabolus // Russian дьявол < Greek

OE enʒel < Latin angelus

OE munic < Latin monachus // Greek monahos // Russian монах

OE biscop < Latin episcopus // Russian епископ // Armenian episcopos

OE cyrice < Latin < Greek kuriakon (of the Lord) // Arm. Kiraki (the day of the Lord)

The Middle English period in the English history is marked by two important historical events, which influenced the further development of the English language:

1. The Scandinavian invasion

2. The Norman conquest

In the result of these two events English came into contact with:

ü Scandinavian dialects

ü The French language

As a result of this contact English underwent the influence especially of Scandinavian dialects (Danish and Norwegian). It is very probable that the fusion of English with Scandinavian dialects brought to changes in the grammatical system of English, especially of English morphology.

The first raids of the Scandinavian warriors (the so-called vikings) began as early as OE period, at the close of the 8th century and continued until the 9th century when the Danes were established in Northumbria. At first the strangers came in small groups and disappeared as soon as they filled their boats with gold and other valuables. From the middle of the 9th century occasional raids were replaced by regular attacks of armies who marched into the country and whose aim was to settle on the land they won. Battles were fought with variable success but on the whole the Scandinavians proved to be stronger and they rapidly spread to different parts of England. Soon they became so powerful that in the time of King Alfred’s rule they conquered all the area to the north to the river Thames. The well-known in the history struggle of Alfred the Great with Danish invaders ended in the year 878 when king Alfred was forced to sign the Wedmore peace according to which more than half of what is now called England was yielded to the Danes. All the East Anglia, Northumbria and half of the Central England made out the district called the Dane Law. Thus, beginning with the 9th century in the district of Danelaw Scandinavians settled in Britain and the population of the Danish district became mixed. In the areas of the heaviest settlement the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which is attested by geographical names (toponyms): in Yorkshire, Northumberland, Lincolnshire, Cumberland up to 75 percent of place names are Danish or Norwegian.

Altogether more than 1,400 English villages and towns bear names of Scandinavian origin (thorp – village: Woodthorp, Linthorp. Toft – a piece of land: Brimtoft, Lowestoft).

The Scandinavian influence became stronger during the rule of king Cnut (Canut), a Dane who achieved the union of the whole England into a peaceful country. This happened during the years of 1016-1042. Soon after Canute’s death (1042) and the collapse of the Empire the new king Edward the Confessor (1042 – 1066) who had been brought up in France brought over many Norman advisors and favourites, distributed among them English lands and appointed them to important positions in the government and church hierarchy. He not only spoke French himself, but insisted on it being spoken by the nobles at his court. William, Duke of Normandy, visited his court and it was rumoured that Edward appointed him his successor.

Eventually the Scandinavians were absorbed into the local population both ethnically and linguistically. They merged with the society around them, but the impact on the linguistic situation and on the English language was profound. Soon the relations between the inhabitants became more friendly. Good neighbor relations brought to mixed marriages, in the result of which father of the family spoke Danish, mother English, and children were bilingual. This led to bilingualism in the country and the linguistic fusion. However, the Government of the country was still in the hands of Anglo-Saxon feudal lords headed by Earl (граф) Godwin of Wessex.