Grammar, Technical and Secondary Modern Schools

Grammar schools provide a mainly academic course for selected pupils from the age of 11 to 18 or 19. Many grammar schools were founded in the Middle Ages and are mostly single-sex schools. Only those children who have the best results are admitted to these schools. In comparison with other maintained schools grammar schools have better buildings, smaller classes, more highly qualified teachers, and often better playing-fields and sport facilities. They give pupils a much higher level of academic instruction, which can lead to the university. The curriculum includes English Language, Eng­lish Literature, modern languages, Latin, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, History, Geography and other subjects.

Technical schools appeared in England at the beginning of this century. They offer a general education with a technical bias and serve those pupils who are more mechanically inclined. Their curricula feature more Science and Mathematics. These schools were planned as academic equals to grammar schools but specialized in technical subjects. In fact the standing of the technical school is often lower than that of the grammar school. Children with slightly lower marks are often admitted. There are very few schools of this type in England and Wales.

Secondary modern schools were formed in England in 1944 to provide a non-academic, education up to the minimum school-leaving age of 16 for children of lesser attainment. The curriculum includes Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, some elementary History and Geography, and more practical subjects than are included in the grammar school curriculum (cooking, needlework, shorthand, typing, woodwork, metalwork, gardening). In fact this kind of education is secondary only in name. A great majority of secondary modern school pupils leave school half-educated.

The selection of children at the age of 11 deprives many talented young people of true educational opportunities. It is believed that intelligence tests measure children's inborn abilities. Yet, the pupils have been prepared for these tests either by their parents or by private teachers. Private coaching is known to produce good results, but the fees are high and accessible only to rich parents. Working-class families can hardly manage them. As a result only a small part of working-class children are admitted to grammar schools.

The selection procedure at the age of 11 aroused a lot of criticism on the part of progressive people in the country. The necessity to organize a school that would accept all the children from a particular area without consideration of their inborn ability or aptitude became urgent in England and Wales. The first schools of this kind, the so-called comprehensive schools began to appear after World War II. These are mainly mixed schools which can provide education for over 1,000 pupils. A much wider range of subjects is offered here than in smaller schools. Ideally they provide all the courses given in grammar, technical and secondary modern schools. The main educational advantages of comprehensive schools are: 1) they are open to all children of all types of ability from a particular area; 2) they are mixed schools; 3) the future of a child is not decided by the results of a selection procedure at the age of 11 and the final choice of a course can be made at a later age; 4) a much wider range of subjects is possible; 5) if necessary, a pupil can change from one course to another without moving to another school; 6) though streaming is preserved, in some comprehensive schools it is modified and made more flexible and some schools do not stream their pupils.

GCE and CSE exams

The GCE exam was introduced in 1951. It is held at two levels. Ordinary level ("O" level) and Advanced level ("A" level). Candidates sit for "O" level paper at 15/16 years of age. (In England all examinations are written. In modern languages there is also an oral examination. Candidates can choose up to 12 or 13 subjects from some 46. In practice they choose 6 or 7. Usually they sit for Mathematics, English, a Science subject (Biology, Chemistry, Physics or General Combined Science), a foreign language, History, Geography, and Music. The GCE exam is the most important external examination. It is set and marked by eight independent examination boards, most of which are connected with a university. "O" level candidates are awarded one of five grades ("A", "B", "C", "D", "E") or are ungraded. "O" level grades "A", "B", "C" are considered "pass" grades (those which are necessary to get accepted for further study in further or higher education). GCE "A" level is usually taken al the end of the sixth form. It is not usually possible to lake a Science subject at "A" level without passing "O" level in the subject first. It is believed that candidates may take as many or as few subjects as they like. In fact students hoping to go to a university must ensure that they take subjects at "O" level and "A" level that meet the entry requirements for their chosen course. Three "A" levels are enough to gain entry to most universities. For most white-collar jobs four or five "O" levels are required.

The CSE exam was introduced in 1965. It is normally taken after 5 years of secondary education by pupils who are of average ability for their age, but unlikely to achieve GCE standard. Any number of subjects can be taken to get this certificate (a separate certificate is awarded for each subject passed). Practically, however, it is enough to pass your exam in only one subject. The CSE exam can be either internal or external. Usually it is internal, and is set and marked by the school teachers. The CSE exam grades are "1", "2", "3", "4", "5". Grade "1" — the highest grade — represents a standard of performance covered often by grade "C" of GCE "O" level. Naturally GCE and CSE certificates have not been accepted as equals.

This dual system of examinations held at the age of 16 creates a number of difficulties. The grading scheme confuses schools, pupils, parents and employers. Some pupils enter both GCE and CSE examinations in the same subject. Some exam boards set easier exams than others. It is easier to get good grades in some subjects than it is in others. The present system of exams is not efficient. For several years now, some examination boards have offered a single sixteen-plus examination (in English, Histo­ry, French) rather than offering two separate examinations at CSE and GCE "O" level. This experiment has proved more or less successful. Under pressure from educationists and other progressive people the government has accepted proposals that the present system of exams should be replaced by a single system of examining at the age of 16. From 1988 the present CSE and GCE "O" level exams are supposed to be combined into a new General Certificate of Secondary Education (the GCSE) exam. The "A" level examination will remain.

EDUCATION IN THE USA

The system of American education includes pre-school education, elementary, intermediate, secondary and higher education.

a) Pre - school education

In the United States there is a variety of pre-school, nursery school and kindergarten programs. The majority of American educationalists consider that the aim of pre-school education is the child’s individual development rather than the mastery of particular skills or academic subjects. Nursery schools and kindergartens are regarded as means of helping children make the transition from home to school.

b) Elementary schools

The elementary school course is from six to nine years in length, the ordinary period being eight years. The pupils enter at about six years of age. In the cities the elementary schools are usually in session for five hours daily, except Saturday and Sunday, beginning at 9 a.m. Classes are frequently divided into A, B and C groups according to speed of learning.

The program of studies in the elementary school includes English (reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composition), arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra also, or plane geometry in the upper grades), geography, history of the USA, and elementary natural science including human physiology and hygiene. Physical training, vocal music, drawing and manual training are often taught. Sometimes a foreign language (Latin, German or French) and the study of general history are begun.

Religious teaching is officially not permitted, although the exercises of the day are often opened with a reading from the Bible and the singing of a hymn.

Corporal punishment is forbidden by law in New Jersey, and in many states may be used only under restrictions.

In the traditional system the 30 youngsters in a first grade classroom have been treated as a unit, given the same assignments and expected to cover the same work in the same amount of time. Nowadays American educationalists consider that trying to move 30 separate individuals along together over the same material, at the same speed has been a frustrating task for teachers.

With the non-graded system, instead of formal first, second and third grades, there might be 21 different achievement levels in one classroom. In non-graded elementary school, a youngster might be studying six grade science, fifth grade arithmetic, and perhaps only third grade English. (Today roughly a third of the public secondary schools have become “non-graded”.

c) Intermediate Education - the Junior high school

The junior high school is a sort of halfway point between elementary and secondary school. It comprises grades seven, eight and nine.

d) Secondary education

The typical high school is comprehensive in nature. The objectives of the comprehensive high school are to provide: 1) general education for all students; 2) subjects useful to those who will leave high school for employment or marriage, and 3) necessary preparatory education for those planning to enter colleges and universities.

There are public and private high schools. Some schools might have modern laboratory equipment for science instruction or very limited facilities.

In some private schools there are strict rules about the dress of students, and no choice in the curriculum. In contrast, there are very permissive private schools with no examinations and little supervision. Public secondary schools offer the same contrast.

e) Higher Education

There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Instead, there are over 2.100 separate institutions ranging from two-year “junior” colleges to complex universities and from technical institutes to classical liberal arts colleges. These institutions may be small or large, rural or urban, private or public, religious or secular; highly selective or open to all.

The combination of English collegiate and university instruction under one corporation and one executive administration is distinctive of higher education in the United States.

The crowning honour of the University students is the degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) although that of M.A. (Master of Arts) - obtainable in less time and much easier condition. The degree of Master of Arts is conferred upon students, who pass certain prescribed examinations. The minimum period of study accepted for the degree of Ph.D., is two years after obtaining the bachelor’s degrees, but in practice, three, and even four years of study are found necessary. In addition to carrying on an investigation in the field of the main subject of study, the candidate for the degree of Ph.D. is usually required to pass examinations on one or two subordinate subjects, to possess a reading knowledge of French and German, and to submit the dissertation which embodies the results of his researches.

Each college or university determines its own entrance policies. Some consider themselves “open door” institutions, giving everyone an opportunity to learn. Others are highly selective and competitive.

Most public colleges and universities charge tuition, as do private institutions.

The academic year is usually of nine months duration, or two semesters of four and a half months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June.

During one term a student will study four or five different subjects. The student’s progress is often evaluated through quizzes (short tests), term papers, and a final examination in each course. Each part of a student’s work in a course is given a mark which helps to determine his final grade. A student’s record consists of his grade in each course. This system is unlike that of most European countries.

College grades are usually on a five point scale (A, B, C, D, E). “A” is the highest mark, E or F denotes failure. Normally, a minimum grade-point average is required to continue in school and to graduate.

The methods of instruction are the lecture, discussion and work in laboratory or seminary.