2018-01-21
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a) in Great Britain
b) in the USA
IV. Find as many differences (similarities) in the lawmaking in GB and the USA as possible
I. Read and translate the text
Making New Laws: Bills and Acts
The functions of Parliament are: making laws; providing money for the government through taxation; examining government policy, administration arid spending; debating political questions.
Every year Parliament passes about a hundred laws directly, by making Acts of Parliament. Because this can be a long process, Parliament sometimes passes a very general law and leaves a minister to fill in the details. In this way, it indirectly passes about 2,000 additional rules and regulations.
No new law can be passed unless it has completed a number of stages in the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The monarch also has to give a Bill the Royal Assent, which is now just a formality. Since 1707 no sovereign has refused a Bill whilst a law is still going through Parliament it is called a Bill. There are two main types of Bills - Public Bills which deal with matters of public importance and Private Bills which deal withlocal matters and individuals.
Public and Private Bills are passed through Parliament in much the same way. When a Bill is introduced in the House of Commons, it receives a formal first reading. It is then printed and read a second time, when it is debated but not amended. After the second reading the Bill is referred to a committee, either a special committee made up of certain members of the House, or to the House itself as a committee. Here it is discussed in detail and amended, if necessary. The Bill is then presented for a third reading and is debated. If the Bill is passed by the Commons it goes to the Lords, and provided it is not rejected by them, it goes through the same procedure as in the Commons. After receiving the Royal Assent the Bill becomes an Act of Parliament. In order to be enforced, it must be published in Statute form, becoming a part of Statute Law. The power of the Lords to reject a Bill has been severely curtailed. A money Bill must be passed by the Lords without amendment within a month of being presented in the House. The Act of 1949 provides that any Public Bill passed by the Commons in two successive parliamentary sessions and rejected both times by the Lords, may be presented for the Royal Assent, even though it has not been passed by the Lords. The Lords, therefore, can only delay the passage of a Public Bill, they cannot reject it.
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II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following expressions.
- абсолютна більшість;
- відхилювати законопроект;
- висунути законопроект;
- оподаткування;
- внести поправку в законопроект;
- обговорювати політичні питання;
- королівська санкція;
- асигнувати гроші для потреб уряду;
- прийняти закон;
- обговорювати законопроект;
- детально обговорити;
- направити законопроект на розгляд;
- відкласти ухвалення закону.
III. Explain the meanings of the following expressions from the text.
- Statute Law;
- to be published in Statute form;
- to receive a formal reading;
- to enforce an Act of Parliament;
- to be severely curtailed;
- money Bill.
IV. Answer the questions.
1. What is the difference between a Bill and an Act of Parliament?
2. What are the two types of Bills? Discuss the difference between them.
3. How many readings should a Bill receive to become an Act?
4. What is the role of the House of Lords in law-making process?
5. Which of the two Houses of Parliament has more power?
6. How does a Bill go through Parliament? How efficient and democratic is process, in your opinion?
I. Read and translate the text
The Executive
The executive can be divided into the three parts.
The Privy Council: The Privy Council developed from a small group of royal advisers at court into the chief source of executive authority. But its position was weakened in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as more of its functions were transferred, to a developing, parliamentary Cabinet.
Today its main role is to advise the monarch on a range of matters, like the resolution of constitutional issues and the approval of Orders in Council, such as the granting of Royal Charters to public bodies. The most important task of the Privy Council today is performed by its Judicial Committee. This serves as the final court of appeal from those dependencies and Commonwealth countries which have retained this avenue of appeal. It may also be used as an arbiter for a wide range of courts and committees in Britain and overseas, and its rulings can be influential.
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The office of Privy Councillor is an honorary one, conferred, for example, on former Prime Ministers.
The Ministry: The Ministry is the government of the moment. The head of the Ministry is the Prime Minister. The functions of the Prime Minister are: leading the majority party; running the Government; appointing Cabinet Ministers and other ministers; representing the nation in political matters.
Upon accepting office the Prime Minister must form a government, that is, select a cabinet and ministry from among the Members of Parliament of his own party. The Cabinet constitutes the centre of the government and is composed of about 20 of the most important ministers. All major decisions of the Government are made by the Cabinet, and therefore it is the Cabinet which forms Government policy. Decisions made by the Cabinet must be unanimous. It makes its decisions collectively and is collectively responsible to Parliament.
After the Prime Minister has formed his cabinet, he selects the rest of his ministry. Most of these ministers are the political heads of Government Departments and are members of one of the Houses.
Government Departments: Government departments are responsible for implementing Government policy. Each department is headed by two people: a political head who is usually the minister, and an administrative head from the Civil Service, called a permanent secretary. They are responsible for permanent staffs which is part of the Civil Service. There are many such departments, for example the Home Office, the Department of Education, the Ministry of Defence, etc. The most important department is the Treasury, and the Prime Minister is usually its political head. It is the Department which controls the economy of the nation.
As well as government departments there are government agencies formed to operate public services, e.g., the Post Office, British Rail, etc. Most of these agencies are subject to the control of one of the government departments.
II. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following words and expressions.
- The Privy Council;
- Royal Charters;
- Commonwealth;
- The Ministry;
- Government Departments;
- Civil Service;
- The Home (Foreign) Office;
- The Treasury.
III. Find the English equivalents for the following expressions in the text.
- вступати на посаду;
- сформувати уряд;
- коло питань;
- почесна посада;
- одноголосне рішення;
- здійснювати політику уряду;
- підлягати контролю.
IV. Answer the questions.
1. What are the functions of:
Parliament;
the Prime Minister;
the Privy Council;
the Cabinet;
the Government Departments?
2. Who does the Cabinet consist of?
3. What is "collective responsibility"?
4. Who is each department headed by? What is their function?
5. What is a government agency?
V. Discuss the following questions.
1. What is the difference between the Constitution of the United Kingdom and the United States?
2. If the Prime Minister wants to introduce a new law, what are the functions of the following: the Cabinet; the House of Commons; the House of Lords; the Queen?
3. What are the features of the British Constitution which yon consider important? Compare them with the Constitution of your own country.
I. Read and translate the text
Members of Parliament in Great Britain
Each Member of Parliament (MP) represents one of 650 constituencies in the UK; British elections are usually fought between political parties, not individuals. Therefore, people who want to be elected to Parliament need to be nominated by one of the main political parties.
There is nothing to stop unconventional candidates from standing for election, however. A candidate has only to put down a deposit of 500 pounds and collect ten signatures from residents in the constituency where he wants to stand. A candidate who gets less than 5 per cent of the total votes loses his deposit. For somebody who is standing for election for publicity purposes, this is a small price to pay.
Although MPs will support a particular party, they are not controlled by that political party and theoretically do not have to vote with their party in Parliament. MPs represent everyone in the constituency, not just the people who voted for them.
A lot of MPs' work has nothing to do with voting in Parliament. There are hundreds of things MPs have to deal with in the day-to-day business of constituency life, such as housing or health care. MPs are there to help people and to try to make sure their rights under the law are not violated.
Some MPs hold an advice bureau in their constituencies, where people can go for advice. Anyone who feels that he has been unfairly treated by the central government can complain to their local MP who will do his best to see that the problem is solved.
Members of Parliament have been paid salaries since 1911. The rate has lately been nearly twice the average industrial worker's wages. Since 1965 the allowances for travel, living in London, and paying part-time secretaries and research assistants, have all been increased. Still many MPs insist that they need to have outside earnings, through journalism, work in the law courts or business, to enable them to live up to the standard they expect.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following phrases.
- звертатися за порадою;
- балотуватися в своєму виборчому окрузі;
- порушувати права;
- висунути свою кандидатуру від партії;
- збирати підписи;
- брати участь у виборчій кампанії в рекламних цілях;
- середня зарплата робочого;
- несправедливо обійтися з ким-небудь.
III. Complete the following text with the words and expressions from the box, using them in the appropriate form.
A.
| to appoint; prominent; local councils; minority; to elect(2); proportion(3); to appeal; |
Some people suppose that there are few women and members of the ethic (a) ____ in Parliament. In 1979, Margaret Thatcher became the first woman Prime Minister, yet she never (b) _______ Cabinet, and until 1983 the (c) ______ of women (d) _______ to the House of Commons was under 5%. In the election in 1992, 59 women (e) _____to the House of Commons. This total is still below the (f) _______ in other European countries.
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Although the Conservatives choose few women as their candidates for the House of Commons' seats, women are very active in the affairs of the party as a whole. The Labourists have also tried to (g) _______ to women voters by giving women (h) _______positions. In (i) _______ of women is elected to (j) _______ that the House of Commons.
B.
constituency; private sector; opposition; inflation;
manifesto; unemployment; general election.
1) The United Kingdom is divided into 650 parliamentary
2) A __________ takes place every four or five years.
3) Before an election, each party prepares a______ which outlines their policies.
4) An important Conservative policy was the rerun of state industries to the ______.
5) During the period of Conservative government, ________ fell to 4% for the first time in nearly thirty years.
6) However, ________ continued to be unacceptably high.
7) While the Conservatives were in, power, Labour formed the official _______.
IV. Answer the questions.
1. Who can stand for elections in Great Britain?
2. What does the job of an MP consist of? Is it a job you would like to do?
3. Who does an MP represent?
4. Is the job of an MP a well-paid one?
5. Are there many women in Parliament in Great Britain? Can you compare this proportion to the proportion of women in the legislative body in your country?
V. Work in pairs and discuss the following questions.
1. What is the equivalent of MPs in your country?
2. What does their work involve? List their responsibilities and write a short paragraph describing their work.
I. Read and translate the text
The Election Timetable
The British government is elected for up to five years, unless it is defeated in Parliament on a major issue. The Prime Minister chooses the date of the next General Election, but does not have to wait until the end of the five-years. A time is chosen which will give as much advantage as possible to the political party in power. Other politicians and the newspapers try very hard to guess which date the Prime Minister will choose.
About a month before the election the Prime Minister meets a small group of close advisers to discuss the date which would best suit the party. The date is announced to the Cabinet. The Prime Minister formally asks the Sovereign to dissolve Parliament.
Once Parliament is dissolved, all MPs are unemployed, but government officers continue to function.
Party manifestos are published and campaigning begins throughout the country, lasting for about three weeks with large-scale press, radio and television coverage.
Voting takes place on Polling Day (usually a Thursday). The results from each constituency are announced as soon as the votes have been counted, usually the same night. The national result is known by the next morning at the latest.
As soon as it is clear that one party has majority of seats in the House of Commons, its leader is formally invited by the Sovereign to form a government.
II. Find the English equivalents for the phrases below in the text.
- виборчий округ;
- правляча партія;
- питання першорядної ваги;
- дати кому-небудь перевагу;
- сформувати уряд;
- широке освітлення передвиборної кампанії в пресі;
- оголосити дату виборів;
- оголосити результати виборів;
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- мати більшість місць у палаті громад;
- розпустити парламент;
- підраховувати голоси;
- зазнати поразки в парламенті;
I. Read and translate the text
Political Parties
The main parties in the UK are the Conservative party (right wing), the Labour party (left wing) and the Liberal Democrats (centre).
The Conservative party goes back to the Tories, or Royalists, who originated in King Charles' reign (1660-1685). The Tories were the party that supported Church and King; the other main party at the time was the Whigs, who were a group eager for political reform. The Tory party gave way to its successor, the Conservative party, in around 1830.
The Conservative party believes in free enterprise and the importance of a capitalist economy, with private ownership preferred to state control.
In 1899 the Trade Union Congress summoned a special conference of trade unions and socialist bodies to make plans to represent labour in Parliament. The proposal for such a meeting had come from Thomas Steels, a member of the Independent Labour Party which had been formed in 1893. The conference met in February 1900 in London and has always been looked on as the foundation of the Labour Party. The Labour party believes that private ownership and enterprise should be allowed to flourish, but not at the expense of their traditional support of the public services.
There has been a Liberal party in Great Britain since 1868 when the name was adopted by the Whig party. The Whig party was created after the revolution of 1688 and aimed to subordinate the power of the Crown to that of Parliament and the upper classes. In 1981 a second centre party was created by 24 Labour MPs. It was called the Social Democratic party, and soon formed an alliance with the Liberal party. They formed a single party which became the Liberal Democrats after the 1987 election.
The Liberal Democrats believe that the state should have some control over the economy, but that there should be individual ownership.
There are other political parties within the UK. The Green party offers' economic and industrial policies that relate directly to the environment. The Scottish Nationalist Party wants independence for Scotland within the European Community. Plaid Cymru - the Welsh Nationalist Party — is determined to preserve the Welsh language and culture as the foundation of a distinctive Welsh identity within the UK. Its radical wing has resorted to arson attempts as a means of protest.
II. Explain the meanings of the following words and expressions
- free enterprise
-to flourish;
- at the expense of;
- to subordinate;
- environment.
III. Answer the questions.
1. What are the origins of the main political parties in Great Britain?
2. What political priorities do the main political parties in Britain have?
IV. Compare the major (the minor) political parties in Britain to those in your own country.
II. Political system of the USA
I. Read and translate the text
The American System of Government
The governmental systems in the United States - federal, state, county, and local - are quite easy to understand, that is, if you grew up with them and studied them in school. One foreign expert complained, for example, that the complexity of just the cities' political and governmental structure is "almost unbelievable." The "real Chicago," he explained, "spreads over 2 states, 6 counties, 10 towns, 30 cities, 49 townships, and 110 villages. Overlaid upon this complex pattern are 235 tax districts and more than 400 school districts..."
There are, however, several basic principles which are found at all levels of American government. One of these is the "one person, one vote" principle which says that legislators are elected from geographical districts directly by the voters. Under this principle, all election districts must have about the same number of residents.
Another fundamental principle of American government is that because of the system of checks and balances, compromise in politics is a matter of necessity, not choice. For example, the House of Representatives controls spending and finance, so the President must have its agreement for his proposals and programs. He cannot declare war, either, without the approval of Congress. In foreign affairs, he is also strongly limited. Any treaty must first be approved by the Senate. If there is no approval, there's no treaty. The rule is "the President proposes, but Congress disposes." What a President wants to do, therefore, is often a different thing from what a President is able to do.
II. Find in the texts the English equivalents for the following words and expressions.
- виборець;
- виборчий округ;
- оголошувати війну;
- законодавець;
- міжнародний договір;
- схвалення Конгресу;
- зовнішня політика;
- глава виконавчої влади;
- проводити в життя закон;
- підтримувати правопорядок;
- висліджувати злочинців;
- бути суворо обмеженим;
- представити справу на розгляд журі присяжних засідателів.
III. Answer the questions.
1. What are the basic principles which are found at all levels of American government?
2. How do you understand the saying: "The President proposes, but Congress disposes"?
3. Who is the chief executive in each state?
4. What laws do the local police enforce?
I. Read and translate the text
The Constitution and the Bill of Rights
The former colonies, now "the United States of America", first operated under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation (1781). It was soon clear that this loose agreement among the states was not working well. The central, federal government was too weak, with too few powers for defence, trade, and taxation. In 1787, therefore, delegates from the states met in Philadelphia. They wanted to revise the Articles, but they did much more than that. They wrote a completely new document, the Constitution, which after much argument, debate, and compromise was finished in the same year and officially adopted by the thirteen states by 1790.
The Constitution, the oldest still in force in the world, sets the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers ("checks and balances") over the others. It specifies the powers and duties of each federal branch of government, with all other powers and duties belonging to the states. The Constitution has been repeatedly amended to meet the changing needs of the nation, but it is still the "supreme law of the land". All governments and governmental groups, federal, state, and local, must operate within its guidelines. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), or to the Supreme Court (the judicial branch). Nor does it rest, as in many other countries, with a political group or party. It belongs to "We the People", in fact and in spirit.
In this way, Americans first took for themselves the liberties and rights that elsewhere were the privileges of an elite few. Americans would manage their own laws. And, of course, they would make their own mistakes.
They stated in the first ten Constitutional Amendments, known together as the Bill of Rights, what they considered to be the fundamental rights of any American. Among these rights are the freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs. Other rights guarded the citizens against unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizures of property, and established a system of justice guaranteeing orderly legal procedures. This included the right of trial by jury that is being judged by one's fellow citizens.
The great pride Americans have in their Constitution, their almost religious respect for it comes from the knowledge that these ideals, freedoms, and rights were not given to them by a small ruling class. Rather, they are seen as the natural "unalienable" rights of every American, which had been fought for and won. They cannot be taken away by any government, court, official, or law.
The federal and state governments formed under the Constitution, therefore, were designed to serve the people and to carry out their majority wishes (and not the other way around). One thing they did not want their government to do is to rule them. Americans expect their government to serve them and tend to think of politicians and governmental officials as their servants. This attitude remains very strong among Americans today.
Over the past two centuries, the Constitution has also had considerable influence outside the United States. Several other nations have based their own forms of government on it. It is interesting to note that Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution, drafted the French declaration of rights when he returned to France. And the United Nations Charter also has clear echoes of what once was considered a revolutionary document.
II. Complete the following text with suitable words or phrases from the text above.
When the Constitution was written in 1787, there were only 13 states. Because the (a)________ of the Constitution saw that the future might bring a __________________ need for changes, they (b)_________a method of adding (c)__________. Over the years 26 amendments have been added, but the basic (d)____________ has not been (e)_____. The pattern of government planned so long ago for 13 states today meets the needs of 50 states and more than 57 times as many people. The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, called the (f)___________ assure individual (g)_______and (h)__________. Added in 1791, they include provisions for freedom of the (i)________and of (j)_________; the right of citizens to (k)_____________ peacefully; the right to be (1)__________in one's own home against unreasonable (m)_________and (n)____________ of person or property; and the right of any person charged with (o) _________ the law to have a speedy trial by a (p)____________ fellow (q)___________.
The Constitution (r) __________branches: the (s)________ includes both houses the powers of the government into three headed by the (t)_________; the (u)______, which of (v)________ (the Senate and the House of Representatives) and the (w)________which is headed by the Supreme Court. The Constitution limits the role of each (x)_______to prevent any one branch from gaining undue (y)________.
III. Find the English equivalents for the expressions below in the text.
- вносити поправки до конституції;
- переглянути документ;
- діяти відповідно до угоди;
- свобода совісті;
- управляти своїми власними справами;
- прийняти конституцію;
- визначити будь-чиї повноваження;
- діяти в рамках конституції;
- одержати необґрунтовано велику владу;
- незаконний арешт;
- свобода зборів;
- захоплення власності;
- задовольняти вимоги.
IV. Answer the questions.
1. How does the American Constitution separate the powers of the government?
2. Has the text of the Constitution ever been changed? How did it become possible?
3. Does any governmental organ or official in the US have the ultimate power? Why?
4. What is the Bill of Rights?
I. Read and translate the text
Congress
Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests.
The House has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of "congressional districts" into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representatives, while Delaware has one. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.
Almost all elections in the United States follow the "winner-take-all" principle: the candidate who wins the largest number of votes in a Congressional district is the winner. Congress makes all laws, and each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Because legislation only becomes law if both houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. Congress decides upon taxes and how money is spent. In addition, it regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries. It also sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.
II. Complete the following text by translating the words or expressions in brackets.
The (законодавча гілка) - (конгрес) - consists of the (Сенат) and the (Палата Представників). Each (сенатор) is elected for six years and each (представник) for two years, with no limitation on the number of (термінів).
Each of the 50 states elects two (сенатор) under а system in which one-third of the (Сенат) is elected every two years. А (сенатор) must be (старший) 30 years old and must have been an American citizen for (принаймні) nine years.
The (Палата Представників) has 435 members. Each state is divided into congressional districts of roughly (рівне) population, and the (виборці) of each district elect one (представник) to (Конгрес). А member must be (старший) 25 years of age and must have been an American citizen for at least seven years.
Both (палата) of (Конгрес) must (схвалити) bills before they become law. The (Сенат) alone (затверджує) the President's (кандидати) for high-level official positions and (ратифікує) treaties with other nations.
I. Read and translate the text
The President and Federal Departments
The President of the United States is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. As it is true with Senators and Representatives, the President is elected directly by the voters (through state electors). In other words, the political party with the most Senators and Representatives does not choose the President. This means that the President can be from one party and the majority of those in the House of Representatives or Senate (or both) from another. This is not uncommon.
Thus, although one of the parties may win a majority in the midterm elections (those held every two years), the President remains President, even though his party may not have a majority in either house. Such a result could easily hurt his ability to get legislation through Congress, which must pass all laws, but this is not necessarily so. In any case, the President's policies must be approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they can become law. In domestic as well as in foreign policy, the President can seldom count upon the automatic support of Congress, even when his own party has a majority in both the Senate and the House. Therefore, he must be able to convince Congressmen, the Representatives and Senators, of his point of view. He must bargain and compromise. This is a major difference between the American system and those in which the nation's leader represents the majority party or parties that are parliamentary systems.
Within the Executive Branch, there are a number of executive departments. Currently these are the departments of State, Treasury, Defence, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education. Each department is established by law, and, as their names indicate, each is responsible for a specific area. The head of each department is appointed by the President. These appointments, however, must be approved by the Senate. None of these Secretaries, as the department heads are usually called, can also be serving in Congress or in another part of the government. Each is directly responsible to the President and only serves as long as the President wants him or her to. They can best be seen, therefore, as Presidential assistants and advisers. When they meet together, they are termed "the President's Cabinet." Some Presidents have relied quite a bit on their Cabinets for advice and some very little.
II. Explain the meanings of the following words and expressions from the text. Make sentences with each of them.
- midterm elections;
-term of office;
- Senator;
- Representative;
- Congressman;
- Parliamentary system of government;
- Executive department;
- Secretary of an executive department;
- The President's Cabinet.
I. Read and translate the text
Federal Departments
The Department of State, headed by the Secretary of State, advises the President on foreign relations. This department handles all peaceful dealings with other countries, and issues passports to American citizens who wish to travel abroad, and visas to visitors to the United States.
The Treasury Department manages government finances, collects taxes, mints coins and prints paper money. The Secret Service, which protects the President and the Vice President, their families and some other dignitaries, is also part of the Treasury Department. So are the Bureau of Customs and the Internal Revenue Service.
The Department of Defence is responsible for the nation's security. The Secretary of Defence is assisted by the Secretaries of the Army, Navy and Air Force.
The Department of Justice, headed by the Attorney General, acts for the government in legal matters and moves against violators of federal laws. The FBI and federal prisons are under his jurisdiction.
The Department of the Interior protects and develops the nation's natural resources and manages the national parks. It also enforces federal hunting and fishing laws, checks on the safety of mines and is responsible for the welfare of the Indian tribes.
The Department of the Agriculture aids food production and looks after the interests of farmers. It issues numerous reports on the supply and prices of farm products, conducts scientific studies of agriculture and lends money to build rural electric systems. Most farms today are served by electricity.
The Department of Labour is concerned with the working conditions, safety and welfare of the nation's non-farm workers. It enforces, among others, the laws on minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. The department's mediation and conciliation service helps employers and workers to settle labour disputes.
The Department of Commerce helps develop domestic commerce as well as trade with other countries, particularly in the mining, manufacturing and transportation industries. One of its important branches issues patents for new inventions; other test products to be sure they meet high standards and report on weather conditions.
In 1979 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare was reorganized into two separate agencies: the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Education. HHS administers many of the nation's social services programmes on a federal level. The Department of 6-6858 Education administers and co-ordinates more than 150 federal aid-to-education programmes.
The Cabinet-level Department of Housing and Urban Development was created in 1965 to help provide adequate housing, particularly for low-income groups, and to foster large-scale urban renewal programmes.
In 1966 President Lyndon Johnson proposed, and Congress approved, the establishment of a Department of Transportation to co-ordinate transportation activities previously carried on by several government agencies.
The Department of Energy, created in 1977 to address the nation's growing energy problems, consolidated the major federal energy functions into single Cabinet-level department. It is responsible for research, development and demonstration of energy technology; energy conservation; the nuclear weapons programme; regulation of energy production and use; pricing and allocation; and a central energy data collection and analysis programme.
In addition to the executive departments, there are numerous independent agencies charged with special functions. Largest of these is the Postal Service, directed by an 11-member board of governors, which was created in 1979 to replace the Post Office Department. It operates post offices and is responsible for handling and delivery of mail and issues stamps.
Other independent regulatory agencies set rules and standards in such fields as rail and air transportation, domestic trade practices, broadcasting licenses and telephone and telegraph rates, investment trading, some banking practices, and equal employment opportunities.
I. Read and translate the text
Checks and Balances
The Constitution provides for three main branches of government which are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are carefully balanced by the powers of the other two. Each branch serves as a check on the others. This is to keep any branch from gaining too much power or from misusing its powers. The chart below illustrates how the equal branches of government are connected and how each is dependent on the other two.
Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of Congress. Congress, in its turn, can override a veto by a two-thirds vote in each house. Congress can also refuse to provide funds requested by the President. The President can appoint important officials of his administration, but they must be approved by the Senate. The President also has the power to name all federal judges; they, too, must be approved by the Senate. The courts have the power to determine the constitutionality of all acts of Congress and of presidential actions, and to strike down those they find unconstitutional.
The system of checks and balances makes compromise and consensus necessary. Compromise is also a vital aspect of other levels of government in the United States. This system protects against extremes. It means, for example, that new presidents cannot radically change governmental policies just as they wish. In the US, therefore, when people think of "the government", they usually mean the entire system, that is, the Executive Branch and the President, Congress, and the courts. In fact and in practice, therefore, the President (i.e. "the Administration") is not as powerful as many people outside the US seem to think he is. In comparison with other leaders in systems where the majority party forms "the government", he is much less so.
II. Explain the meanings of the following words and expressions.
a) constitutionality;
b) to strike down an act of Congress;
c) consensus;
d) the Administration.
III. Find the English equivalents for the expressions below in the text.
- бути пов'язаним з;
- одержати дуже велику владу;
- залежати від;
- політика уряду;
- партія більшості;
- відхилювати вето президента;
- схвалити;
- порівняно з.
IV. Answer the questions.
1. How are the powers of
a) the President;
b) Congress;
c) the Supreme Court limited by the system of checks and balances?
2. What is the role of compromise in the American system of running the country?
3. Why do people abroad tend to exaggerate the power of the US President?
I. Read and translate the text
Federalism: State and Local Governments
The fifty states are quite diverse in size, population, climate, economy, history, and interests. The fifty state governments often differ from one another, too. Because they often approach political, social, or economic questions differently, the states have been called "laboratories of democracy". However, they do share certain basic structures. The individual states all have republican forms of government with a senate and a house. (There is one exception, Nebraska, which has only one legislative body of 49 "senators"). All have executive branches headed by state governors and independent court systems. Each state has also its own constitution. But all must respect the federal laws and not make laws that interfere with those of the other states (e.g., someone who is divorced under the laws of one state is legally divorced in all). Likewise, cities and local authorities must make their laws and regulations so that they fit their own state's constitution.
The Constitution limits the federal government to specific powers, but modern judicial interpretations of the Constitution have expanded federal responsibilities. All others automatically belong to the states and to the local communities. This has meant that there has always been a battle between federal and state's rights. The traditional American distrust of a too powerful central government has kept the battle fairly even over the years. The states and local communities in the US have rights that in other countries generally belong to the central government.
All education at any level, for example, is the concern of the states. The local communities have the real control at the public school level. They control administration of the schools. They elect the school board officials, and their local community taxes largely support the schools. Each individual school system, therefore, hires and fires and pays its own teachers. It sets its own policies within broad state guidelines. Similarly, there is no national police force, the FBI influence being limited to a very few federal crimes, such as kidnapping. Each state has its own state police and its own criminal laws. The same is true with, for example, marriage and divorce laws, driving laws and licenses, drinking laws, and voting procedures. In turn, each city has its own police force that it hires, trains, controls, and organizes. Neither the President nor the governor of a state has direct power over it. By the way, police departments of counties are often called "sheriffs departments". Sheriffs are usually elected, but state and city police officials are not.
There are many other areas which are also the concern of cities, towns, and villages. Among these are opening and closing hours for stores, street and road repair, or architectural laws and other regulations. Also, one local community might decide that a certain magazine is pornographic and forbid its sale, or local school board might determine that a certain novel should not be in their school library. (A court, however, may later tell the community or school board that they have unfairly attempted to exercise censorship.) But another village, a few miles down the road, might accept both. The same is true of films. Most states and some cities have their own income taxes. Many cities and counties also have their own laws saying who may and may not own a gun. Many airports, some of them international, are owned and controlled by cities or counties and have their own airport police. Finally, a great many of the most hotly debated questions, which in other countries are decided at the national level, are in America settled by the individual states and communities. Among these are, for example, laws about drug use, capital punishment, abortion, and homosexuality.
A connecting thread that runs all the way through governments in the US is the "accountability" of politicians, officials, agencies, and governmental groups. This means that information and records on crimes, fires, marriages and divorces, court cases, property taxes, etc. are public information. It means, for example, that when a small town needs to build a school or buy a new police car, how much it will cost (and which company offered what at what cost) will be in the local newspaper. In some cities, meetings of the city council are carried live on the radio. As a rule, politicians in the US at any level pay considerable attention to public opinion. Ordinary citizens participate actively and directly in decisions that concern them. In some states, such as California, in fact, citizens can petition to have questions (i.e., "propositions") put on the ballot in state elections. If the proposition is approved by the voters, it then becomes a law. This "grass roots" character of American democracy can also be seen in New England town meetings or at the public hearings of local school boards.
Adding this up, America has an enormous variety in its governmental bodies. Its system tries to satisfy the needs and wishes of people at the local level, while at the same time the Constitution guarantees basic rights to anyone, anywhere in America. This has been very important, for instance, to the Civil Rights Movement and its struggle to secure equal rights for all Americans, regardless of race, place of residence, or state voting laws. Therefore, although the states control their own elections as well as the registration procedures for national elections, they cannot make laws that would go against an individual's constitutional rights.
II. Find the English equivalents for the following expressions below in the text.
- ставити питання на голосування;
- розширити коло обов'язків;
- незалежно від;
- транслювати по радіо в прямому ефірі;
- заборонити продаж чого-небудь;
- міська рада;
- громадська думка;
- забезпечити рівні права.
III. Answer the questions
1. What are the common principles in the structures of governments of individual states?
2. Who is the head of the executive branch of power in each state?
3. How must laws and constitutions of different states correlate?
4. What is meant by the "battle" between federal and states' rights?
5. Give at least 5 examples of the areas of public life that the states are responsible for.
6. What is a "sheriff department" and who is a sheriff?
7. Are income taxes and prices of goods the same in different states?
8. What is meant by the "accountability" of politicians and officials?
I. Read and translate the text
Political Parties
The Constitution says nothing about political parties, but over time the US has in fact developed a two-party system. The two leading parties are the Democrats and the Republicans. There are other parties besides these two, and foreign observers are often surprised to learn that among these are also a Communist party and several Socialist parties. Minor parties have occasionally won offices at lower levels of government, but they do not play a role in national politics. In fact, one does not need to be a member of a political party to run in any election at any level of government. Also, people can simply declare themselves to be members of one of the two major parties when they register to vote in a district.
Sometimes, the Democrats are thought of as associated with labour and the Republicans with business and industry. Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal government in some areas of public life which they consider to be the responsibility of the states and communities. Democrats, on the other hand, tend to favour a more active role of the central government in social matters.
To distinguish between the parties is often difficult, however. Furthermore, the traditional European terms of "right" and "left", or "conservative" and "liberal" do not quite fit the American system. Someone from the "conservative right", for instance, would be against a strong central government or a Democrat from one part of the country could be very "liberal", and one from another part, quite "conservative". Even if they have been elected as Democrats or Republicans, Representatives or Senators are not bound to a party programme, nor are they subject to any discipline when they disagree with their party.
While some voters will vote a "straight ticket", in other words, for all of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election, many do not. They vote for one party's candidate for one office and another's for another. As a result, the political parties have much less actual power than they do in other nations.
In the US, parties cannot win seats which they are then free to fill with party members they have chosen. Rather, both Representatives and Senators are elected to serve the interests of the people and the areas they represent, that is, their "constituencies". In about 70 per cent of legislative decisions, Congressmen will vote with the specific wishes of their constituencies in mind, even if this goes against what their own parties might want as national policy. It is quite common, in fact, to find Democrats in Congress voting for a Republican President's legislation, quite a few Republicans voting against it, and so on.
II. Explain the meanings of the following expressions and give Russian equivalents for them.
- to vote a "straight ticket"; - a major party;
- a minor party; - liberal;
- conservative.
I. Read and translate the text
Elections
Anyone who is an American citizen, at least 18 years of age, and is registered to vote may vote. Each state has the right to determine registration procedures. A number of civic groups, such as the League of Women Voters, are actively trying to get more people involved in the electoral process and have drives to register as many people as possible. Voter registration and voting among minorities has dramatically increased during the last twenty years, especially as a result of the Civil Rights Movement.
There is some concern, however, about the number of citizens who could vote in national elections but could not. In the national elections of 1984, for instance, only 53.3 per cent of all those who have voted actually did. But then, Americans who want to vote must register, that is put down their names in register before the actual elections take place. There are 50 different registration laws in the US - one set for each state. In the South, voters often have to register not only locally but also at the county seat. In European countries, on the other hand, "permanent registration" of voters is most common. Of those voters in the United States who did register in the 1984 presidential elections, 73 per cent cast their ballots.
Another important factor is that there are many more elections in the US at the state and local levels than there are in most countries. If the number of those who vote in these elections (deciding, for example, if they should pay more taxes so a new main street bridge can be built) were included, the percentage in fact would not be that much different from other countries.
Certainly, Americans are much more interested in local politics than in those at the federal level. Many of the most important decisions, such as those concerning education, housing, taxes, and so on, are made close to home, in the state or county.
The national presidential elections really consist of two separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party conventions. The other is to win the actual election. The nominating race is a competition between members of the same party. They run in a succession of state primaries and caucuses (which take place between March and June). They hope to gain a majority of delegate votes for their national party conventions (in July or August). The party convention then votes to select the party's official candidate for the presidency. Then follow several months of presidential campaigns by the candidates.
In November of the election year (years divisible by four, e.g. 1988, 1992, 1996, etc.), the voters across the nation go to the polls. If the majority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and vice-presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to get all of that state's "electoral votes." These electoral votes are equal to the number of Senators and Representatives each state has in Congress. The candidate with the largest number of these electoral votes wins the election. Each state's electoral votes are formally reported by the "Electoral College." In January of the following year, in a joint session of Congress, the new President and Vice-President are officially announced.
II. Find the English equivalents for the words and expressions below in the text.
- реєструватися для голосування;
- президентські вибори;
- виборці;
- виборчий бюлетень;
- виборча кампанія;
- кандидат в президенти;
- колегія вибірників;
- затвердження кандидата;
- первинні вибори в партійних організаціях;
- первинні вибори на партійних форумах;
- партійний з’їзд;
- виборча ділянка.
III. Answer the questions.
1. Which American citizens may vote?
2. Why do you think many people who could vote in the national election don't do it?
3. Why are most Americans more interested in local politics than in those at the federal level?
4. What parts does the national presidential election consist of?
5. Describe the process of electing the President.
I. Read and translate the text
Political Attitudes
It's often been said and does seem to be true: Americans seem almost instinctively to dislike government and politicians. They especially tend to dislike "those fools in Washington" who spend their tax money and are always trying to "interfere" in their local and private concerns. Many would no doubt agree with the statement that the best government is the one that governs least. In a 1984 poll, for example, only a fourth of those asked wanted the federal government to do more to solve the country's problems. Neighbourhoods, communities, and states have a strong pride in their ability to deal with their problems themselves, and this feeling is especially strong in the West.
Americans are seldom impressed by government officials (they do like royalty, as long as it's not theirs). They distrust people who call themselves experts. They don't like being ordered to do anything. For example, in the Revolutionary War (1776-83) and in the Civil War (1861-65), American soldiers often elected their own officers. In their films and fiction as well as in television series, Americans often portray corrupt politicians and incompetent officials. Anyone who wants to be President, they say with a smile, isn't qualified. Their newsmen and journalists and television reporters are known the world over for "not showing proper respect" to governmental leaders, whether their own or others. As thousands of foreign observers have remarked, Americans simply do not like authority.
Many visitors to the US are still surprised by the strong egalitarian tendencies they meet in daily life. Americans from different walks of life, people with different educational and social backgrounds, will often start talking with one another "just as if they were all equal." Is everybody equal in the land that stated - in the eyes of God and the law - that "all men are created equal?" No, of course not. Some have advantages of birth, wealth, or talent. Some have been to better schools. Some have skins or accents or beliefs that their neighbours don't especially like. Yet the ideal is ever-present in a land where so many different races, language groups, cultural and religious beliefs, hopes, dreams, traditional hates and dislikes have come together.
All in all, what do Americans think of their system of government? What would "We the People" decide today? One American, a Nobel Prize winner in literature, gave this opinion: "We are able to believe that our government is weak, stupid, overbearing, dishonest, and inefficient, and at the same time we are deeply convinced that it is the best government in the world, and we would like to impose it upon everyone else."
Of course, many of today's 240 million Americans would disagree in part or with all. "Who is this one American," they might ask, "to speak for all of us?"
III. Courts in Great Britain and the USA
I. Read the text "Courts in England and Wales" and make comments on it.
Courts in England and Wales (Part I)
Criminal offences may be grouped into three categories. Offences tribal only on indictment — the very serious offences such as murder, manslaughter, rape and robbery — are tried only by the Crown Court presided over by a judge sitting with a jury. Summary offences — the least serious offences and the vast majority of criminal cases — are tried by unpaid lay magistrates sitting without a jury. A third category of offences (such as theft, burglary, or malicious wounding) are known as 'either way' offences and can be tried either by magistrates or by the Crown Court depending on the circumstances of each case and the wishes of defendant.
In addition to dealing with summary offences and the ‘either way’ offences which are entrusted to them, the magistrates' courts commit to the Crown Court either for trial or for sentence. Committals trial either of indictable offences or of 'either way' offences, which have been determined, will be tried in the Crown Court. Committals for sentence occur when the defendant in an 'either way' case has been tried summarily but the court has decided to commit him or her to the Crown Court for sentence.
Magistrates must as a rule sit in open court to which the public and the media are admitted. A court normally consists of three lay magistrates — known as justices of the peace — advised on points of law and procedures by a legally qualified clerk or a qualified assistant. Magistrates are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, except in Lancashire, Greater Manchester and Merseyside where appointments are made by the Duchy of Lancaster. There are nearly 28,000 lay magistrates.
Vocabulary Notes to text
1. tribal - підсудний
2. manslaughter — ненавмисне вбивство
3. rape - згвалтування
4. lay magistrate – мировий суддя
5. theft – крадіжка
6 burglary — нічна крадіжка зі виломом
7. indictable offence — правопорушення, що підлягає розгляду в суді
8. to try summarily — розглядати справу в суді у порядку сумарної юрисдикції.
II. Translate the micro texts “Criminal Courts”, “Magistrates’ Courts” in written form.
Criminal Courts
There are two main kinds of courts, and two kinds of judicial officers, to correspond with them. Courts of first instance are presided over by magistrates, who are normally Justices of the Peace (JPs); higher courts ('crown' courts) by judges, or in some cases, senior barristers specially appointed to perform judicial functions for part of their time.
Magistrates' Courts
Every person charged with an offence is summoned to appear beforea local magistrates' court, which may impose a fine up to a general limit of 2,000 or twelve months' imprisonment, though for some specified offences the laws prescribe maximum penalties below these limits. With 98 per cent of cases the magistrates on the bench decide on guilt or innocence, and if necessary what penalty to impose. With more serious cases the magistrates can decide only to send them for trial in a crown court. A person accused before a magistrates' court may demand to be sent for trial court in some of the more serious cases with which in general the magistrates could have dealt themselves.
A magistrates' court normally consists of three Justices of the Peace (occasionally, two or four more). The JPs are ordinary but worthy citizens who have been appointed to their positions by the Lord Chancellor on the advice of local appointing committees. JPs have no formal qualifications; they are chosen merely for their good reputation, often with the support of political parties or approved voluntary bodies. Once appointed, they are expected to attend courses of instruction about their work. There are 28,000 JPs in England; each of them works in the court on about 30-50 days a year.
Commentary and Notes
1. JP = Justices of the Peace — мирові судді
2. to demand — вимагати
3. worthy citizens — гідні громадяни
4. The Lord Chancellor — Лорд-канцлер (головна суддівська посадова особа, спікер палати лордів, член кабінету міністрів)
5. to approve — схвалювати
I. Read and translate the text "Courts in England and Wales" and discuss it.
Courts in England and Wales (PART II)
There are 63 full-time, legally qualified stipendiary magistrates who may sit alone and usually preside in courts in urban areas where the workload is heavy.
Cases involving people under 17 are heard in juvenile courts. These are specially constituted magistrates' courts which either sit apart from other courts or are held at a different time. Only limited categories of people may be present and media reports must not identify any juvenile appearing either as a defendant or a witness. Where a young person under 17 is charged jointly with someone of 17 or over, the case is heard in an ordinary magistrates’ court or the Crown Court. If the young person is found guilty, the court may transfer the case to a juvenile court for sentence unless satisfied that it is undesirable to do so.
The Crown Court deals with trials of the more serious cases, the sentencing of offenders committed for sentence by magistrates' courts, and appeals from magistrates’ courts. It sits at about 90 centres and is presided over by High Court judges, full-time 'circuit judges’ and part-time recorders. All contested trials take place before a jury. Magistrates sit with a circuit judge or recorder to deal with appeals and committals for sentence.
The Government is planning to alter court procedures regarding of serious or complex fraud with a view to by-passing full committal proceedings in magistrates' courts at the discretion of the prosecution, but with a special procedure under which the accused would be able to the Crown Court to be discharged on the ground that there was no case to answer.
I. Read the text "Courts in Scotland" and make comments on it.
Courts in Scotland
In Scotland the High Court of Justiciary tries such crimes as murder, treason and rape; the sheriff court is concerned with less serious offences and the district court with minor offences. Criminal cases are heard either under solemn procedure, when proceedings are taken indictment and the judge sits with a jury of 15 members, or under summary procedure, when the judge sits without a jury. All cases in the High Court and the more serious ones in sheriff courts are tried judge and jury. Summary procedure is used in the less serious cases in the sheriff courts, and in all cases in the district courts. District courts are the administrative responsibility of the district and the islands government authorities; the judges are lay justices of the peace and the local authorities may appoint up to one quarter of their elected members to be ex officiojustices. In Glasgow there are four stipendiary magistrates who are full-time salaried lawyers and have equivalent criminal jurisdiction to a sheriff sitting under summary procedure. Children under 16 who have committed an offence or are for other reasons specified in statute considered to need compulsory care may be broughtbefore a children's hearing comprising three members of the local community.
Vocabulary Notes to text
1. treason – державна зрада
2. solemn procedure — офіційна процедура (яка задовольняє всі формальні вимоги)
3. indictment – обвинувачувальний акт
4. lay justices of the peace — мирові судді
5. ex officio — лат. – за посадою, в силу зайнятої посади
I. Read the text "Courts in Northern Ireland" and make comments on it.
Courts in Northern Ireland
The structure of Northern Ireland courts is broadly similar to that in England and Wales. The day-to-day work of dealing summarily with minor cases is carried out by magistrates' courts presided over by a full-time, legally qualified resident magistrate. Young offenders under 17 and young people under 17 who
