The For-To-Infinitive Construction

It is а construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to а noun in the Common case or а pronoun in the Objective case preceded by the preposition for. The construction can have different functions in the sentence.

FUNCTION	EXAMPLE
Subject After the adjectives nice, kind, silly, etc. the preposition of is used.	It’s a pleasure for us to see you. It’s kind of you to help him.
Predicative (a part of a compound nominal predicate)	The book is for you to read.
Object	We waited for them to return.
Attribute	It’s not the time for us to argue.
Adverbial modifier of purpose	He opened the door for us to enter.
Adverbial modifier of result	It was too late for them to call us.

PREDICATIVE СОNSТRUСIONS WITH ТHE PARТICIPLE

THE OBJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

Both Participle I and Participle II can form the Objective Participial Construction.

It is а construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to а noun in the Common case or а pronoun in the Objective case. In the sentence this construction has the function of а complex object.

The Objective Participial Construction with Participle I is used after the verbs of sense perception see, hear, watch:

He saw his friend crossing the street and stopped.

The Objective Participial Construction with Participle II can be used after the following groups of verbs:

а) After the verbs of sense perception see, hear, watch

She heard the question asked but didn't want to answer in.

b) After the verbs of mental activity expect, consider, understand

They considered him involved in the business.

с) After the verbs denoting wish want, wish

He wants this letter typed as soon as possible.

d) After the verbs have, get, make

He had his hair cut.

He has his dinner delivered.

They made it happen to you.

THE SUBJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

It is а construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to а noun in the Common case or а pronoun in the Nominative case. In the sentence it is used as а complex subject. It is mostly used with the verbs of sense perception. Both Participle I and Participle II are used in this construction but Participle II has passive meaning.

So many times they were seen talking together.

He was never heard talking about you.

They were seen stopped by а policeman.

GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES

Gerund is often used in complexes in which it is in predicate relation to а nounor а pronoun. Predicative complexes are usually rendered in Russian by а subordinate clause.

The nominal element can be expressed by а noun in the Genitive or Common case, а possessive pronoun, а personal pronoun in the Objective case, an indefinite or reflexive pronoun.

I can't approve of Mary missing classes.

I can't approve of Mary’s missing classes.

I can't approve of her missing classes.

She couldn't stop herself crying.

He didn’t remember anybody telling him this.

In a sentence they can be used as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier in the same way as gerunds are used.

Subject – Her trying to help is useless.

Object – I have never heard of anybody going there.

Attribute – I didn’t like the idea of our travelling alone.

Adverbial modifier – After finishing breakfast she washed up.

In spite of being tired he didn’t stop to have a rest.

You can help me by doing the shopping.

THE INTERJECTION

The Interjection is a word or a phrase used to express strong emotions. They are ah, oh, alas, well, dear me, etc. If an interjection stands by itself, it is followed by an exclamation mark. Within a sentence it is set off with a comma. Interjections are used as independent elements of a sentence, i.e. they are not connected grammatically with any part of the sentence:

Ah! Here you are!

Why, you don't look like your brother.

Well, you can try again.

THE PREPOSITION

A preposition is used to express a relationship between a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund and other words in a sentence. Usually it stands before a word it refers to:

A friend of mine told me the news.

The door of the house was wide open.

The person behind you wants to say something.

After sleeping she felt much better.

A preposition can be separated from the word it refers to:

Who do you want to talk to?

Prepositions have the following morphological structure:

Simple	Derivative	Compound	Composite
in, on, at, to, with, etc.	across, along, below, etc.	inside, outside, etc.	in front of, because of, instead of, in spite of, etc.

According to their meaning prepositions are divided into those of place, direction, time, and abstract relations:

She is at home now. There is nothing on the table. Let's go to the park.

She gets up at 7 o'clock. After breakfast she leaves for work.

I'll do it with pleasure. She'll be upset because of you.

Some prepositions are polysemantic and are used to express different relations, e.g. at, for:

She is at school. She comes home at noon.

She'll do it for you. She has lived there for two months.

Some prepositions are homonymous with conjunctions (since, after, before) and adverbs (after, before).

Prepositions	Conjunctions	Adverbs
I have known them since last year.	I have known them since we moved here.	She has never talked about it since.
After dinner he used to walk.	We'll go for a walk after we have dinner.	But I have never met them after.
Brush your teeth before going to bed.	Brush your teeth every evening before you go to bed.	I knew them before but it was really long ago.

Prepositions are not used as independent parts of the sentence. A preposition and the word, to which it refers, form a prepositional phrase that can perform the function of a prepositional object, attribute, predicative, or adverbial modifier:

Prepositional Object – Let’s go with them.

Attribute – I didn’t recognize the person in front of me.

Predicative – It is of no importance.

Adverbial modifier – He is in the park now.

THE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is used to connect parts of sentences, phrases, or clauses:

You can do it but not now.

Trees and bushes were in blossom.

She will cope because she is smart.

Conjunctions have the following morphological structure.

simple	derivative	compound	composite
as, and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, etc.	until, unless, because	however, whenever, etc.	as well as, as long as, in case, for fear that, etc.

There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative and subordinating.

Coordinating:	and, but, for, nor, or, yet
Correlative:	both... and, either... or, neither... nor, not only... but, whether... or
Subordinating:	(of time) - after, as, as soon as, as long as, before, since, until, when, whenever, while; (of manner) - as, as if, as though; (of cause) - because; (of condition) - as long as, if, unless, provided, while; (of concession) - although, though, even if, even though; (of comparison) - as, than; (of purpose) - in order that, so that, that.

A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases and clauses that perform the same function in the sentence:

He likes to run and play football.

She is not going to help you or anybody else.

The sun was shining and the air was getting warmer.

A correlative conjunction is a conjunction that consists of two or more words that function together. Correlative conjunctions connect words and phrases that perform the same function in the sentence:

He likes both football and volleyball.

You can either play in the yard or watch TV.

They neither work nor study.

Whethe r you stay or go, the life will go on its own way.

A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause and connects it to the main clause expressing various types of relationship:

They will come after you invite them.

Somebody will answer you if you ask.

Since you know the facts, I'm not going to repeat them again.

John already knew about the latest developments because they were on TV.

Do it as I do.

She walked as if her feet were of stone.

Though she didn't like her neighbour, she couldn't refuse to help him.