Indirect Offers, suggestions and advice

Offers, suggestions and advice are introduced in indirect speech by the verbs advise, offer, suggest, propose, remind.

Note:

‘offer’ is used to say that you are willing to give, to pay, or to do something;

‘suggest’ is used to tell somebody your idea what they should do; after the verb ‘suggest’ gerund or a subordinate clause with subjunctive mood is used (but not an infinitive);

‘propose’ is more formal than ‘suggest’.

If after the verbs ‘suggest’ and ‘propose the person addressed is mentioned, the preposition ‘to’ is used.

“Would you like a cup of coffee?” he said. – He offered me a cup of coffee. “Let’s walk a little.” – She suggested walking a little. She suggested to us that we walk (should walk) a little.

 

 

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence is a sentence, which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is a part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

a) SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore ).

He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart.

b) ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.

The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.

We can distinguish the following types of coordination:

1. COPULATIVE COORDINATION (соединительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.

Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily.

2. DISJUNCTIVE COORDINATION (разделительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.

Don’t come near me with that look, else I’ll knock you down.

3. АDVERSATIVE COORDINATION (противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, only, whereas, while, yet, still, nevertheless. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.

The room was dark, but the street was light because of its lamps.

4. CAUSATIVE-CONSECUTIVE COORDINATION (причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctions for, therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly.

Hers (Lillian’s) wasn’t a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer passionately.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

1. SYNDETICALLY, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction serves only as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

What he had achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. – (connective).

2. ASYNDETICALLY, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

I wish you had come earlier.

A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principle clause. A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other. A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principle clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination.

I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she had made some great success in marrying Mr. Gowan.

According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses

SUBJECT CLAUSES

Subject clauses perform the function of a subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such.

What I want to do is to get ready for the exams.

If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in the principle clause.

It was always possible that they might rely upon someone.

NOTE: There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate clause is a predicative clause.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

· by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:

It was fortunate that the patient was brought in time.

· by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever ( conjunctive pronouns ); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs):

What was done could not be undone.

It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action.

· asyndetically:

It’s a pity her brother is quite a stranger to her.

Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other.

NOTE: Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an emphatic construction; however in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences.

It was his uncle who spoke first.

PREDICATIVE CLAUSES

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i.e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

· by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if:

Our attitude simply is that facts are facts.

It was as if these men and women had recognized each other.

I felt as if death had laid a hand on me.

· by means of the connectives who, which, what ( conjunctive pronouns ), where, when, how, why ( conjunctive adverbs ):

The problem was how the matter was to be kept quiet.

That was why you were not one bit frightened.

As a rule, predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other.

NOTE: In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

What we are going to do is what we were told to.

OBJECT CLAUSES

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate verb of the principal clause.

I don’t know what you are talking about.

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.

She looked my way wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt.

She was aware that someone else was there.

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

· by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether:

She wondered if (whether) Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another.

· by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how (conjunctive adverbs):

I’ll do just what I say.

· asyndetically:

He said there was nothing much the matter with me.

An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.

I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to share with me.

There are some types of complex sentences with an object clause:

1. An object clause may directly follow the verb it refers to:

I know what I have done.

2. An object clause refers to the formal introductory "it" followed by the objective predicative:

I think it necessary that you should go there at once.

3. There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb:

He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought very lonely there.

As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.

What I used not to like, I long for now.

What happened then I don’t know.

If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. The noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning.

Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically – by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses are joined only syndetically – by means of conjunctions.

Attributive Relative Clauses

Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.

1. A restrictive relative clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are introducedin the following way:

· relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as)

· relative adverbs (where, when)

· asyndetically

All that could be done had been done.

I think my father is the best man I have ever known.

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They in most cases are introduced syndetically by means of

· relative pronouns (who, which)

· relative adverbs

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool.

A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clauses is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. It is introduced by a relative pronoun which, translated into Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manson was not indoors, which was a relief to her.