The category of voice

Ильиш points out two approaches to the definition of voice that used to exist: The category of voice expresses the relation between the subject and the action. The category of voice expresses the relation between the subject and the object of the action. Now those definitions of voice are more widely accepted that indicate that the form of the verb shows the direction of an action in respect of the subject. If the subject of a sentence is the agent of the action, or, the action comes from it, we speak of the Active Voice. If the subject of a sentence is the recipient of the action, or, the action is directed upon it, we speak of the Passive Voice. From the point of view of the oppositional theory the category of voice is built up on the opposition of the Active and Passive voice. The passive voice is the marked element of the opposition, the marker is the discontinuous morpheme BE + -EN. The form of the passive voice is a true analytical form. TYPES OF PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS According to the number of elements in a passive construction, the latter can be divided into: 1 a two-member passive construction 2 a three-member passive construction A two-member passive construction includes the subject of the construction which is the recipient of the action, and the second member is the action itself. The child will be looked after. A three-member passive construction consists of the subject of the construction which is the recipient of the action, the action itself and the agent of the action. This kind of the passive construction is considered emphatic and is usually used to emphasize the doer of the action. There are several reasons why passive constructions are more extensively used in English than in Russian. The fact is that only one type of Passive exists in Russian in which a direct object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction. And indirect object cannot be used as the subject of the passive construction. Unlike in Russian, many English verbs that take two objects can feature them both in the position of the subject of the passive construction. Thus the following types of passive constructions exist: the direct passive, the indirect passive, the prepositional passive, the adverbial passive. REASONS FOR THE FREQUENT OCCURENCE OF THE PASSIVE IN ENGLISH It is common knowledge that the Passive is extensively used in English. This seems to be due to a number of reasons. In English there are no means of avoiding the indication of the doer of the action in active constructions. In other languages we find special active constructions which make it possible to avoid any mention of the agent. For instance, in Russian there several grammatical means to serve the purpose: the so-called indefinite-personal sentences in which there is no subject and the predicate is in the third person plural: Греков держали как пленников, но при этом обращались с ними самым почтительным образом и предоставляли им всевозможные блага. sentences with reflexive verbs: Эта картина ценилась выше, чем все другие. Он знал, что оставался ещё один важный вопрос Его неожиданное появление объяснялось очень про то. impersonal sentences Не слышалось никакого шума. Взорвало плотину. Всё небо обложило тучами It is true that in English the indefinite pronoun ONE and occasionally the personal pronouns WE, YOU, THEY and the noun PEOPLE may be used in the same way. But for some reason or other, the use of this kind of sentences is restricted, and English, instead, resorts to passive constructions. In English, owing to the loss of distinction between the accusative and the dative cases, the number of verbs taking a direct object is quite considerable. It accounts for the extensive use of the Direct Passive. There is a great variety of passive constructions in English. Although some of them are restricted in their application, they still contribute to the frequent occurrence of the Passive. THE QUESTION OF THE NUMBER OF VOICES Most grammarians agree that there are two voices in ME. However, three other voices have been singled out: the Reflexive voice, the Reciprocal voice, the Middle voice. The Reflexive voice: I will shave and wash. Actually the direction of the action in this example is different from that of the Active Voice. The action is performed by the subject upon itself, or, as Блох characterizes it, “The action comes from the subject and back to it”. This kind of direction is called “reflexive”. It can be rendered explicitly (that is with the help of reflexive pronouns) or it can be rendered implicitly (without reflexive pronouns). But the trouble is that this meaning is not expressed formally, by the form of the verb itself. Ильиш notices: “In order to acknowledge the existence of the Reflexive Voice it is necessary to prove that reflexive pronouns used in here are voice auxiliaries”. E.g. He is helping himself and his friends. However, there is an example of a different kind: He found himself alone. / Help yourself. They cannot be joined by any conjunction and a noun. So in that case the SELF-PRONOUNS can be treated as voice-auxiliaries. However, Ильиш is very cautious and says that there is no sufficient ground for recognizing the REFLEXIVE VOICE and he leaves the question open. THE RECIPROCAL VOICE. Nelly and Christopher divorced two years ago. The friends will be meeting tomorrow. These sentences can be used with reciprocal pronouns (EACH OTHER; ONE ANOTHER). The direction of the action in these examples is specific, it differs from that of the ACTIVE VOICE. In fact the action is performed by the subjects on one another. Or, the action goes on between the elements of the subject. And this kind of verbal meaning is called reciprocal. It can be rendered explicitly or implicitly. The grammarians who support the existence of the RECIPROCAL VOICE treat reciprocal pronouns as voice-auxiliaries. However, most grammarians do not recognize reciprocal voice-forms as grammatical. Блох says: “They are phrasal derivatives and can be interpreted syntactical-lexical. There are four main directions of an action: from the subject, to the subject, from the subject and back to it, between the elements of the subject.

The first two directions are indicated by the form of the verb and therefore they are included in the opposition of the category of voice. The other two directions are indicated lexically either by a verb or by reflexive or reciprocal pronouns. THE MIDDLE VOICE The door opened. The book is selling well. The transitive verbs in these examples are used specifically. The action is confined to the subject, it appears to go on of its own accord. The action goes on within the subject without affecting any object. It differs from the ACTIVE VOICE in meaning and syntactical construction. However, it is nit recognized because it is lacking in regularity and the outer form of expression. Блох points out: “they are cases of neutralization of voice opposition but peculiar ones. Because the weak member does not coincide with the strong one but is located between the two members.