Special transmission grids for railways

In some countries where electric trains run on low frequency AC (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) power there are separate single phase traction power networks operated by the railways. These grids are fed by separate generators in some power stations or by traction current converter plants from the public three phase AC network. Sample transmission voltages include:

· 25 kV (United Kingdom)

· 25 and 50 kV (South Africa)

· 66 and 132 kV (Switzerland)

· 110 kV (Germany, Austria).

XIV. Составьте письменный реферат текста.

Unit 6

I. Определите значение данных слов и словосочетаний, используя англо-русский словарь.

generator engine to mount standby set hand-portable hand-cart to tow stationary available

trailer-mounted to disrupt to supplement disaster areas rating substitute sewerage amusement rides traveling carnivals

II. Проверьте по словарю произношение данных интернациональных слов.

Combination, diesel, trailer, watt, hospital, context, carnival, model, yacht, transfer, starter, automatic, service, site, propane.

III.Проанализируйте и переведите на русский язык следующие существительные и наречия, образованные с помощью следующих суффиксов.

-or: generator, regulator, connector, propellor;

-er: starter, programmer, compiler, impeller;

-ly: generally, permanently, temporarily, especially.

IV. Определите способ словообразования следующих однокоренных слов и переведите их на русский язык.

1. to combine—combined—combination.

2. to supply—supplied—supply—supplier—supplies.

3. to connect—connected—connection, to disconnect—disconnected.

4. to install—installed—installation, to uninstall—uninstalled.

V. Просмотрите текст и найдите слова близкие по значению к данным. Переведите их на русский язык.

to be bought one reserve

to match to provide place

VI. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из существительного, причастия I (герундия) и существительного, на русский язык.

automatic starting system

alternating current power

traveling carnivals

power generating units

VII. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из существительных, на русский язык.

utility power

transfer switch

engine speed regulator

generator voltage regulator

utility power station

communication service installation

sewerage pumping station

standby power generator

VIII. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения словa as.

1) as — так как, поскольку (если as стоит в начале предложения);

2) as — как, в качестве (если as стоит в перед существительным);

3) as — по мере того как (если as используется в предложении, сказуемое которого выражено глаголом, передающим длительное действие: to develop, to continue, to increase, etc).

1. Engine-generators produce alternating current power that is used as a substitute for the power.

2. These include small, hand-portable units that can supply several hundred watts of power, hand-cart mounted units, as pictured above, that can supply several thousand watts.

3. The smaller units tend to use gasoline (petrol) as a fuel.

4. As cool gas enters the hot zone it begins to heat.

5. As the world develops, new and more complicated devices are produced.

IX. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на инфинитив в различных функциях.

1. The generator voltage (volts), frequency (Hz) and power (watts) ratings are selected to suit the load that will be connected.

2.Standby power generating units often include an automatic starting system and a transfer switch to disconnect the load from the utility power source and connect it to the generator.

3. Small and medium generators are especially popular in third world countries to supplement grid power.

4. Engine-generators are often used to supply electrical power in places where utility power is not available and in situations where power is needed only temporarily.

5. An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine mounted together to form a single piece of equipment.

X. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод страдательного залога.

1. Small generators are sometimes used to supply power tools at construction sites.

2. Trailer-mounted generators can be towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.

3. Hospitals, communications service installations, sewerage pumping stations and many other important facilities are equipped with standby power generators.

4. This combination is also called an engine-generator set or a genset.

5. Standby power generators are permanently installed and kept ready to supply power to critical loads during temporary interruptions of the utility power supply.

XI. Предложенный вариант перевода последнего абзаца текста содержит ошибки. Найдите их и отредактируйте перевод.

Standby power generators are permanently installed and kept ready to supply power to critical loads during temporary interruptions of the utility power supply. Hospitals, communications service installations, sewerage pumping stations and many other important facilities are equipped with standby power generators. Small and medium generators are especially popular in third world countries to supplement grid power, which is often unreliable. Trailer-mounted generators can be towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.

Резервные генераторы энергии постоянно устанавливаются и сохраняются готовыми поставлять власть к критическим грузам в течение временных прерываний сервисного электропитания. Больницы, сооружения обслуживания коммуникаций, канализация насосные станции и много других важных средств обслуживания оборудованы резервными генераторами энергии. Маленькие и средние генераторы особенно популярны в странах третьего мира, чтобы добавить мощь сетки, которая является часто ненадежной. Установленные трейлером генераторы могут буксироваться к областям бедствия, где власть сетки была временно разрушена.

XII. Выполните перевод всего текста.

Engine-generator

An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine mounted together to form a single piece of equipment. This combination is also called an engine-generator set or a genset. In many contexts, the engine is taken for granted and the combined unit is simply called a generator.

In addition to the engine and generator, engine-generators generally include a fuel tank, an engine speed regulator and a generator voltage regulator. Many units are equipped with a battery and electric starter. Standby power generating units often include an automatic starting system and a transfer switch to disconnect the load from the utility power source and connect it to the generator.

Engine-generators produce alternating current power that is used as a substitute for the power that might otherwise be purchased from a utility power station. The generator voltage (volts), frequency (Hz) and power (watts) ratings are selected to suit the load that will be connected. Both single-phase and three-phase models are available.

Engine-generators are available in a wide range of power ratings. These include small, hand-portable units that can supply several hundred watts of power, hand-cart mounted units that can supply several thousand watts and stationary or trailer-mounted units that can supply over a million watts. The smaller units tend to use gasoline (petrol) as a fuel, and the larger ones have various fuel types, including diesel, natural gas and propane (liquid or gas).

Engine-generators are often used to supply electrical power in places where utility power is not available and in situations where power is needed only temporarily. Small generators are sometimes used to supply power tools at construction sites. Trailer-mounted generators supply power for lighting, amusement rides etc. for traveling carnivals.

Standby power generators are permanently installed and kept ready to supply power to critical loads during temporary interruptions of the utility power supply. Hospitals, communications service installations, sewerage pumping stations and many other important facilities are equipped with standby power generators. Small and medium generators are especially popular in third world countries to supplement grid power, which is often unreliable. Trailer-mounted generators can be towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.

XIII. Составьте письменную аннотацию текста.

Unit 7

I. Определите значение данных слов и словосочетаний, используя англо-русский словарь.

turbine steam tо replace to reciprocate multiple reversible nozzle to apply supersonic blade curved to mount to whip stationary to expand exhaust seal

to scale up pressure-proof to turn out lifetime capacity to punch casing to occur failure to bypass to break apart gear [giə] spectacularly to engage robust to run up to be offset

II. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания на русский язык. Помните, что главным словом в таких словосочетаниях является последнее, все слова, стоящие слева от него играют роль определения. Перевод беспредложных терминологических словосочетаний надо начинать с главного слова. Например:

1. Weight ratio

↓

Чего? ← коэффициент

↓

массы

Перевод: коэффициент массы.

2. Reciprocating piston steam engine

↓

какой? ← двигатель

↓

какой? ← паровой

↓

с поршнем возвратно-поступательного хода

Перевод: паровой двигатель с поршнем возвратно-поступательного хода.

1. linkage mechanism

2. heat engine

3. exhaust end

4. maintenance requirements

5. main steam stop valves

6. steam turbine shaft

7. precision manufacture

8. expensive and precise reduction gears

9. purchase cost

III.Определите часть речи. Переведите цепочки однокоренных слов на русский язык.

1. tо heat – heater – heating – heated – superheated.
2. place – to place – to replace.
3. rotate – rotor – rotary – rotational.
4. improve – improvable – improvement – improved.
5. efficient – inefficient – efficiency – efficacy – effective – effectively.
6. generate – generation – generative – generator.
7. press – pressure – pressure-proof – pressing – pressurize.
8. expand – expansion – expansive.
9. direct – to direct – to redirect – direction – directional – directive – directly.
10. succession – successive – successor.
11. optimum – optimize – optimization.
12. require – required – requiring – requirement.
13. catastrophe – catastrophic – catastrophically.
14. precise – precisely – precision.
15. reduce – reduced – reducible – reduction.
16. control – to control – controllable – controlled – uncontrolled.

IV. Заполните таблицу. Приведите русские эквиваленты данных слов.

Интернациональ-ные слово/слова, полностью сов­падающие по значению в английском и русском языках (например: laboratory' centre)	Английское слово, ко­торое шире по объему значений, чем сходное по форме русское слово (например: conductor - проводник, дирижер, а не только кондуктор; control - управлять, а не только контролировать)	Псевдоинтернацио-нальные слова - слова, сходные по форме, но имеющие совершенно иное значение в англий­ском и русском язы­ках, (например: data - данные, а не дата; principal - основной, а не принципиальный)
1. 2. …	1. 2. …	1. 2. …

Energy, mechanism, thermal, generator, stage, process, stationary, atmospheric, centrifuge, vibration, design, problem, corrosion, system, critical, equivalent, control, extreme, variation, dynamo, operate.

V. Найдите в тексте и запишите примеры употребления прилагательных в сравнительной и превосходной степенях сравнения. Переведите на русский язык. Объясните разные способы образования степеней сравнения. Образуйте недостающие формы.

Положительная	Сравнительная	Превосходная
Синтетический способ
+er	The +... est
1. 2. …
Положительная	Сравнительная	Превосходная
Аналитический способ
More +... Less +...	The most +... The least +...
1. 2. …

VI. Укажите значения приставок в нижеприведенных словах. Определите, к какой части речи относятся данные слова, переведите их на русский язык.

Replace, supersonic, redirect, imbalance, superheated, uneven, disengaged, uncontrolled, overspeed.

VII. Расшифруйте данные сокращения.

PSI –

KW –

RPM –

R/min –

Hz –

VIII. Переведите на русский язык словосочетания с причастием в функции определения соответствующей формой русского причастия.

pressured steam

curved blades

generating capacity

superheated steam

uncontrolled acceleration

IX. Переведите на русский язык следующие определительные причастные обороты с помощью соответствующей формой русского причастия или определенного придаточного предложения. Например:

Phenomena occurring during the reaction...

Явления, происходящие во время реакции...

(которые происходят во время реакции)

We can use the method suggested by Spark

Мы можем использовать метод, предложенный Спарком

(который предложил Спарк)

engine invented by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt

blades mounted on a robot

steam exhausted through a nozzle into the air

force experienced by the blade

any water entering the blades

X. Найдите в тексте и переведите на русский язык четыре предложения, где причастие I выполняет функцию обстоятельства. Помните, что причастие I в этой функции переводится соответствующей формой русского деепричастия.
Например:

An acid gives rise to a salt and water reacting with a base

Кислота распадается на соль и воду, реагируя с основанием

XI. Найдите в тексте предложения с обстоятельственным причастным оборотом, предшествующим союзом when и переведите их на русский язык. Помните, что такие причастные обороты могут переводиться:
– деепричастным оборотом с соответствующей формой деепричастия;
– отглагольным существительным с предлогом при;
– обстоятельственным придаточным предложением.
Например:

1. When carrying out the experiment the scientist noted that…
Проводя опыт, ученый заметил, что…
При проведенииопыта ученый заметил что…
Когда ученый проводил опыт, он заметил, что...

2. When heated to 100% water boils
Будучи нагретой до 100ºС, вода закипает
При нагревании до 100°С вода закипает
Когда воду нагревают до 100ºС, она закипает

XII. Найдите во 2-м абзаце текста предложение с независимым причастным оборотом и переведите его на русский язык. (В данном случае независимый причастный оборот переводится самостоятельным предложением с союзом причем).

XIII. В 4-м абзаце выделите предложение с герундиальным оборотом, и переведите его на русский язык. Герундиальный оборот переведите придаточным предложением с союзом что с предшествующим ему местоимением то.

XIV. Полностью переведите текст на русский язык. Перевод 4-го абзаца выполнить письменно.

Steam Turbine

1) A steam turbine extracts the energy of pressurized superheated steam as mechanical movement.

It has completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power to weight ratio. Also, because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator - it doesn't require a linkage mechanism to convert reciprocating to rotary motion. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam (as opposed to the one stage in the Watt engine), which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.

Principle of operation

2) In a steam turbine nozzles apply pressurized supersonic steam to a set of curved blades mounted on a rotor. Each blade whips the steam back in the opposite direction, simultaneously allowing the steam to expand a little. A stationary blade then redirects the steam towards the next set of blades toward the exhaust end with the gap between acting a nozzle. The process repeats in successive stages until the steam is exhausted at nearly atmospheric pressure. The moving blades are mounted radially on the rotor, while the stationary blades are mounted to the case of the turbine. Turbines always consist of a number of stages, with each stage being carefully optimised for the pressure and volume of steam that it contacts. Because high pressure (several hundred psi) steam exhausted through a nozzle into the air travels so fast, the turbine, in order for it to be efficient, must rotate very fast. This requires that the rotor and its blades be well-balanced to protect it against vibrations, and creates difficulties with the seals around the rotor. The centrifugal force experienced by the blade is so strong that it must be carefully designed and made out of the strongest available materials to prevent it from failing catastrophically.

History and present

3) The modem steam turbine was invented by an Irishman, Charles A. Parsons, in 1884 whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of electricity. His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. This was good, because the turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam. It is also, however, considerably less efficient. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be relatively easy to scale up. Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up by about 10,000 times.

4) Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are relatively small. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can lead to a blade letting go and punching straight through the casing. If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the bladesrapid erosion of the blades can occur, possibly leading to imbalance and failure. When warming up a steam turbine for use the main steam stop valves before the boiler have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also a turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. When first rotating the turbine by steam the turning gear is disengaged and the astern blades are normally used since they are more robust and not as critical. When a steam turbine such as a turbo-generator is operating, any water entering the blades will likely result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the steam turbine shaft. The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly, to prevent damage. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials. A steam turbine is only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range while most of the work it does rotates in the hundreds of RPM meaning that expensive and precise reduction gears must be used. This purchase cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power.

XVI. Составьте письменный реферат текста.

Unit 8

I. Определите значение данных слов и словосочетаний, используя англо-русский словарь.

facility reject to employ cogeneration mover fossil peaker overall base load amount landfill backup outage digester cooling tower chimney hyperbolic

containment dome reciprocating engine substantial to reclaim to suck intake aquatic

II. Проверьте по словарю произношение данных интернациональных слов.

Accurately, conversion, chemical, term, station, machine, magnetic, conductor, type, thermal, transform, mechanical, classify, operate, boiler, cycle, critical, atmosphere.

III.Проанализируйте и переведите следующие слова с суффиксом –ly.

Commonly, accurately, chiefly, typically, relatively, usually, frequently, actually, costly, significantly

IV. Образуйте отсутствующие части речи. Переведите однокоренные слова на русский язык.

	Существительное	Глагол	Прилагательное
1.		convert
2.	power
3.		rotate
4.		conduct
5.		combine
6.		solve
7.		cool
8.		reinforce
9.		employ
10.		discharge
11.	heat

V. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из существительных и прилагательных, на русский язык.

energy center power plant commonwealth English steam power plant cogeneration power plant steam turbine generator base load power plant internal combustion piston engine power outage combustion turbine

low cost solution opportunity fuels water treatment plant concrete containment dome heat engine heat exchanger water body water intake water temperature

VI. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, в состав которых входит причастие II на русский язык.

fossil fueled power plants

natural gas fired plant

combined heat-and-power plant

combined cycle plant

VII. Переведите данные словосочетания с причастием I и II в роли левого определения на русский язык.

the most commonly used term

rotating machine

isolated communities

reinforced domes

reclaimed water

increased temperature

falling water

VIII. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из существительных, на русский язык.

the energy source harnessed to turn the generator

the type of prime mover installed

a gas turbine fired by natural gas

IX. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод страдательного залога.

1. “Power plant” is used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles.

2. In thermal power station mechanical power is produced by a heat engine…

3. Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power.

4. If reject heat employed as useful heat for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant.

5. Thermal power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the prime mover is tolled.

6. Older natural gas fired plant must be started and stopped slowly.

7. Reciprocating engines are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas plants.

8. The water is taken in heated by the heat exchanger, and discharged back into the water body.

9. Some people worry about organisms killed when they are sucked into the water intake.

X. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. A generator is a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor.

2. Microturbines and reciprocating engines are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels.

3. This type of cooling saves a substantial amount of fresh water from being used to cool the plant.

XI. Выберите правильный вариант перевода.

1. Hospitals and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage.	a) Госпитали и другие критиче­ские сооружения также ис­пользуют их для обеспечения резервной электроэнергии при прекращении подачи электроэнергии. b) Больницы и другие важные учреждения также исполь­зуют их для обеспечения ре­зервной электроэнергии в случае нарушения энерго­обеспечения. c) Больницы и другие решаю­щие предприятия также ис­пользуют их для обеспечения дублирующей электроэнер­гии в случае нарушения по­дачи электроэнергии.
2. Whenever possible, electric companies prefer to use cooking water from the ocean or a nearby lake or river.	a) Когда это возможно, электри­ческие компании предпочи­тают пользоваться охлаж­дающей водой из океана, близкого озера или реки. b) Когда бы это не было воз­можно, электрические ком­пании предпочитают исполь­зовать охлаждённую воду из океана, соседнего озера или реки. c) Всякий раз, когда это воз­можно, электрические ком­пании предпочитают исполь­зовать охлаждающую воду из океана, соседнего озера или реки.
3. However, it can cause the temperature of the water to rise significantly.	a) Несмотря на это, это может служить причиной значи­тельного повышения темпе­ратуры. b) Однако это может вызывать значительное повышение температуры. c) Тем не менее, это может за­ставлять температуру воды значительно повышаться.

XII. Выполните перевод всего текста.

Power station

A power station or power plant is a facility for the generation of electric power. 'Power plant' is also used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to use the term "energy center" because it more accurately describes what the plants do, which is the conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy, into electrical energy. However, "power plant" remains the most commonly used term in American English, while "power station" is the most common term in Commonwealth English.

At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on what fuels are easily available and the types of technology that the power company has access to.

In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine, which transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power plants produce steam, and these are sometimes called steam power plants. Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, thermal power plants also produce low-temperature heat. If no use is found for the heat, it is lost to the environment. If reject heat is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant.

Thermal power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover installed. Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine generator. Fossil fueled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator. Natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine, known as a 'peaker', which provides rapid startup for peak loads, although older ones typically use steam turbine generators and must be started and stopped slowly. Combined cycle plants have a gas turbine fired by natural gas, with a steam boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and most new baseload power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas. A relatively small amount of electric power is produced by internal combustion piston engines, also called reciprocating engines. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas plants.

Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. Microturbines and reciprocating engines are low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

Cooling towers are huge hyperbolic chimney-like structures that release the waste heat to the atmosphere. The very large cooling towers at nuclear power plants are often mistaken for the reactors, which are actually contained in thick, reinforced concrete containment domes that are typically much smaller. Cooling towers may be employed at any type of thermal power station, but large towers are found at either nuclear or fossil fueled stations. Geothermal, biomass and waste to energy plants tend to use smaller cooling towers. Whenever possible, electric companies prefer to use cooling water from the ocean or a nearby lake or river. The water is taken in, heated by the heat exchanger, and discharged back into the water body. This type of cooling is less costly and more efficient, and it also saves a substantial amount of fresh water from being used to cool the plant provided wet cooling towers are being used. However, it can cause the temperature of the water to rise significantly. Although a small percentage of plants use reclaimed water, some people worry about the organisms killed when they are sucked into the water intake and the effects of the increased water temperature on the aquatic environment.

Other power stations use the energy from wave or tidal motion, wind, sunlight or the energy of falling water, hydroelectricity.

XIII. Составьте письменную аннотацию текста.

Unit 9

I. Определите значение данных слов, используя англо-русский словарь.

nuclear range n, v installation fission fissile subcritical moderator to sustain feasibility to transmute to decay inherently proliferation fusion obstacle

release, n greenhouse particulate stockpiling disastrous maintenance to decommission to impose controversial to cease dispute n, v to claim disposal leakage

II. Проверьте по словарю произношение данных интернациональных и псевдоинтернациональных слов. Приведите их русские эквиваленты.

Constant, construction, reactor, commercial, isotope, uranium, plutonium, thermal, moderator, prototype, theoretical, demonstration, cycle, radioactive, emission, design, advocate, opponent, adequate.

III. Определите к какой части речи относятся данные однокоренные слова, переведите их на русский язык.

1. nucleus – nuclei – nucleate – nuclear.

2. construct – construction – constructional – constructor.

3. operate – operation – operational – operative – operator.

4. fissile – fission – fissionable.

5. moderate – moderation – moderator.

6. inherence – inherent – inherently.

7. sustain – sustained – sustaining – sustainable.

8. proliferate – proliferation – prolific – prolificacy.

9. fusible – fusibility – fusion.

10. maintain – maintained – maintenance.

11. controversy – controvert – controversial – controversialist.

12. significance – significant – signification – significative – signify.

13. compete – competition – competitive – competitor.

14. leak – leaking – leakage – leaky.

IV. Проанализируйте и переведите на русский язык прилагательные, образованные с помощью следующих суффиксов:

- al: experimental, commercial, operational, thermal, subcritical, theoretical, minimal, technical, controversial, essential;

- able: sustainable, considerable;

- ent: independent, different;

- ous: dangerous, disastrous, numerous.

V. Подберите эквиваленты перевода следующих словосочетаний со словом cost:

1. fuel costs a) фактические затраты

2. capital cost b) затраты на техническое обслуживание

3. finance costs c) ориентировочная стоимость

4. maintenance costs d) капитальная стоимость

5. running costs e) расходы на топливо

6. actual costs f) полные издержки

7. allowable costs g) аварийные затраты

8. estimated cost h) финансовые расходы

9. commercial costs i) допустимые издержки

10. accident cost j) текущие расходы

VI. Переведите следующие терминологические словосочетания на русский язык.

heat source base load stations boiling water reactors fission power reactor chain reactor laboratory demonstration construction cost feasibility studies light water reactor

graphite-moderated reactor heavy water-moderated reactor longer-lived radioisotopes faster-decaying materials nuclear proliferation concerns construction period safety systems long-term storage

VII. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на определения, выраженные причастием I и причастием II.

1. A NPP is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors generating nuclear power.

2. Nuclear power plants are classified according to the type of reactor used.

3. Nuclear fusion offers the possibility of the release of very large amounts of energy with a minimal production of radioactive waste and improved safety.

4. There remain some obstacles to the generation of commercial electric power using nuclear fusion.

5. The quantity of waste produced is small.

6. The numerous safety systems required significantly increase running costs.

7. Disposal of spent fuel and other nuclear waste is an advantage of nuclear power.

VIII. Переведите следующие предложения со словами-заместителями на русский язык. Помните, что слово-заместитель that (those) заменяет ранее стоящее существительное и переводится тем существительным, которое оно замещает, или опускается:

The atomic weight of oxygen is greater than that of carbon. – Атомный вес водорода больше (атомного веса) углерода.

Слово-заместитель ранее стоящего существительного this (these) переводится личным местоимением в именительном или косвенном падеже:

This phenomenon is also of great interest; this involves the increase of… - это явление также представляет большой интерес; с ним связано увеличение…

1. Some installations have several independent units, and these may use different classes of reactors.

2. Nuclear waste is small in quantity compared to that generated by competing technologies.

3. The electron temperature is much greater than that of the gas as a whole.

4. Suppose that the total volume of the gas is k times that of the molecule.

5. There are two methods of measuring the conductivity of semiconductors. The first of these, which is used more commonly, has a number of advantages.

6. Two other very suitable temperatures are always generally available, those of melting ice and of boiling water.

IX. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод страдательного залога. Укажите время глаголов в страдательном залоге.

1. Electricity was generated to the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951.

2. … no prototype had been proposed or built to generate electric power by this means, although some laboratory demonstrations had been conducted.

3. Because most fast reactors have historically been used for plutonium production, they are associated with nuclear proliferation concerns.

4. More than twenty prototype fast reactors have been built all over the world.

5. Almost all the advantages and disadvantages are disputed in some degree by the advocates for and against nuclear power.

X. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на значение модальных глаголов.

1. Boiling water reactors can come down to half power at night.

2. Some of the plant-types below in the future may have passively safe features.

3. Fission power reactors may be further divided into three classes.

4. Fast reactors have the advantages that their fuel cycle can use all of the uranium in natural form.

5. Future designs may be small and modular.

6. Consequences of an accident might be disastrous.

7. The environment cannot be adequately protected from the risk of future leakages from long-term storage.

XI. Определите синтаксическую функцию причастия claiming в предпоследнем и последнем предложениях. Как будет отличаться его перевод в различных функциях?

XII. Выполните полный письменный перевод всего текста на русский язык.

Nuclear power plant

A nuclear power plant (NPP)is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors generating nuclear power.

Nuclear power plants are base load stations, which work best when the power output is constant (although boiling water reactors can come down to half power at night). Their units range in power from about 40 MWe to almost 2000 MWe, typical of new units under construction in 2005 being in the range 600-1200 MWe.

As of 2005 there are 441 nuclear power reactors in operation around the world, which produce about one-sixth of the world’s electric power.

History

Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951 at the EBR-1 experimental station. On June 27, 1954, the world’s first nuclear power plant that generated electricity for the commercial use was officially connected to the Soviet power grid at Obninsk, Kaluga Oblast, Russia. The Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania) was the first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States – the construction cost was $72.5 million.

Nuclear power plants are classified according to the type of reactor used. However some installations have several independent units, and these may use different classes of reactor. In addition, some of the plant-types below in the future may have passively safe features.

Fission power reactors generate heat by nuclear fission of fissile isotopes of uranium and plutonium.

They may be further divided into three classes:

● Thermal reactors use a neutron moderator to slow or moderate the rate of production of fast neutrons by fission, to increase the probability that they will produce another fission and thus sustain the chain reaction.

● Fast reactors sustain the chain reaction without needing a neutron moderator.

● Subcritical reactors use an outside source of neutrons rather than a chain reaction to produce fission. As of 2004 this was a theoretical concept, and no prototype had been proposed or built to generate electric power by this means, although some laboratory demonstrations and several feasibility studies had been conducted.

Thermal reactors are divided into:

Light water reactors (LWR)

Graphite-moderated reactors

Heavy water-moderated reactors

Although some of the earliest nuclear power reactors were fast reactors, they have not as a class achieved the success of thermal reactors.

Fast reactors have the advantages that their fuel cycle can use all of the uranium in natural uranium, and also transmute the longer-lived radioisotopes in their waste to faster-decaying materials. For these reasons they are inherently more sustainable as an energy source than thermal reactors. Because most fast reactors have historically been used for plutonium production, they are associated with nuclear proliferation concerns.

More than twenty prototype fast reactors have been built in the USA, UK, Russia, France, Germany, Japan and India, and as of 2004 one was under construction in China.

Nuclear fusion offers the possibility of the release of very large amounts of energy with a minimal production of radioactive waste and improved safety. However, there remain considerable scientific, technical and economic obstacles to the generation of commercial electric power using nuclear fusion. It is therefore an active area of research.

Advantages of NPP’s are:

● Essentially no greenhouse gas emissions

● Do not produce air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury, nitrogen oxides or particulates

● The quantity of waste produced is small

● Small number of accidents

● Low fuel costs

● Large fuel reserves

● Ease of transport and stockpiling of fuel

● Future designs may be small and modular

Disadvantages are:

● Nuclear waste produced is dangerous for thousands of years

● Consequences of an accident might be disastrous

● Risk of nuclear proliferation associated with some designs

● High capital costs

● In the past long construction periods, imposing large finance costs and delaying return on investment

● High maintenance costs

● High cost of decommissioning plants

● Current designs are all large-scale

Nuclear power is highly controversial, enough so that the building of new nuclear power stations has ceased in Europe (except Finland). Almost all the advantages and disadvantages are disputed in some degree by the advocates for and against nuclear power.

The cost benefits of nuclear power are also in dispute. It is generally agreed that the capital costs of nuclear power are high and the cost of the necessary fuel is low compared to other fuel sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power has low running costs, opponents claim that the numerous safety systems required significantly increase running costs.

Disposal of spent fuel and other nuclear waste is claimed by some as an advantage of nuclear power, claiming that the waste is small in quantity compared to that generated by competing technologies, and the cost of disposal small compared to the value of the power produced. Others list it as a disadvantage, claiming that the environment cannot be adequately protected from the risk of future leakages from long-term storage.

XIII. Составьте письменный реферат текста.

Unit 10

I. Определите значение данных слов, используя англо-русский словарь.

to reclaim feedstock to harness residue disposal ash landfill to recover anaerobic digestion incineration robust

to pelletise refuse, n to enhance flue to emerge obligation reliance to handle to yield to frustrate stringent

II. Прочтите и переведите следующие псевдо-интернациональные слова и слова с более широким объёмом значений, чем сходные по форме русские слова. Выберите правильный ответ или ответы из ряда значений справа

original исходный, первоначальный, оригинальный

construction строительство, конструкция

technique техника, технические приёмы, метод, способ

dramatically драматически, резко

realize понимать, осуществлять, реализовывать (продавать)

emission выделение, распространение, эмиссия

control контроль, управление, регулирование

scale шкала, уровень, масштаб

capital капитальный, главный

III. a) Образуйте существительные от глаголов и переведите их

-ion to construct, to pollute, to digest, to extract, to incinerate, to separate, to regulate, to combust, to generate, to opt

-ation to consider, to prepare

-ment to treat, to develop, to require, to environ, to manage

-iety to vary

-al to dispose

b) Образуйте прилагательные от существительных и глаголов, переведите их.

-al origin, biology, residue, clinic, industry, environment, tradition

-ible to combust

-able practice

-ant to signify, import

-ent to differ

-ive to complete, effect

-ful care

IV. Переведите цепочки однокоренных слов.

1. Apply – application – applicant – appliance – applicable –applied.

2. Construct – construction – constructional – constructor – constructive.

3. Residue – residual – residuary.

4. Digest – digestion – digestible – digestive.

5. Incinerate – incineration – incinerator – incinerated.

6. Derive – derivation – derivable – derivative.

7. Combust – combustion – combustibility – combustible.

8. Emit – emission – emissive.

9. Signify – significance – significant – significative.

10. Compete – competition – competitor – competitive.

V. Переведите следующие беспредложные терминологические словосочетания на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод слов в функции определения.

waste material feedstock treatment processes air pollution control systems landfill site incineration technology refuse derived fuel plant electricity output district heating systems

waste input flue gas treatment technologies emission requirements health impact waste delivery gate fee waste management options waste management methods

VI. Расшифруйте следующие сокращения. Приведите русский эквивалент

EfW

RDF

UK

MW

NSCA

VII. Переведите следующие словосочетания с причастием II в функции определения на русский язык.

a specially licensed landfill site

the steam produced

mixed municipal wastes

improved use

significant capital costs involved

the required level of finance

an integrated approach

VIII. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод сказуемого в страдательном залоге.

1. A number of different techniques have already been developed for recovering EfW.

2. Over the last ten years the emissions from EfW plants have been dramatically reduced.

3. The old generation of incineration plants have all been closed or upgraded.

4. Careful contract preparation will be needed for all types of waste treatment.

5. EfW is highly regulated.

IX. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод модальных глаголов, на форму инфинитива.

1. The ash that is left can also be made good use of.

2. The heat may also be utilised in district heating systems.

3. RDF is turning the combustible portion of waste into a fuel which can be stored and transported or directly used on the site.

4. EfW plants can produce between six and 40 MW of electricity.

5. Opponents of EfW worry that long-term contracts for waste delivery could frustrate future plans to cut waste or improve recycling.

6. No one technology can be the answer in all cases.

X. Переведите предложение на русский язык, обращая внимание на перевод герундия.

1. These plants are capable of reducingthe volume of waste by as much as 90 percent.

2. The most common form of EfW is using incineration technology.

3. This involves burning residual waste (typically after separation for recycling and composting) in furnaces.

4. Other processes pelletise waste inputs for burning in a refuse derived fuel plant.

5. There pas been a significant level of interest in developing new plants.

XI. Выполните полный письменный перевод всего текста на русский язык.

Energy from waste

The term ‘energy from waste’ (EfW) covers a wide variety of combustion processes that reclaim energy from a waste material feedstock. It specifically refers to treatment processes that harness the calorific value in waste to generate electricity of heat – our energy. The process also serves to reduce the volume and weight of the original waste, leaving only a residue that requires disposal.

These plants are capable of reducing the volume of waste by as much as 90 percent and the weight by 75 percent. The ash that is left can also be made good use of in construction recycling applications, while the residues from the air pollution control systems require further treatment or disposal in a specially licensed landfill site.

A number of different techniques have already been developed for recovering EfW, including combustion gasification, pyrolysis and biological processes, such as anaerobic digestion and the extraction of landfill gases, although the most common form of EfW is using incineration technology. This involves burning residual waste (typically after separation for recycling and composting in furnaces and includes a boiler and generator system to provide an electricity output from the steam produced. The heat may also be utilised in district heating systems. The technology itself is very robust and is able to process mixed municipal wastes and other waste streams, including clinical and industrial wastes. Other processes pelletise waste inputs for burning in a refuse derived fuel (RDF) plant. The Government has defined RDF as ‘turning the combustible portion of waste, such as paper and plastics, into a fuel which can be stored and transported, or directly used on site to produce heat and or power.’

A key development of EfW has been through the evolution of environmental technology and regulation. Over the last ten years the emission from EfW plants have been dramatically reduced through enhanced regulation and improved use of flue gas treatment technologies. The older generation of incineration plants have all been closed or upgraded to meet the 1996 emissions requirements.

Presently the UK has 18 EfW plants, two of which are RDF plants, but there has been a significant level of interest in developing new plants that will utilise both the traditional technologies (incineration) and the ‘emerging’ technologies (pyrolysis, gasification), primarily to help the UK meet its obligation to reduce its reliance on landfill.

EfW plants that handle between 90,000 and 60,000 tonnes of waste per year can produce between six and 40MW of electricity. There is currently enough capacity to produce 203MW of power from UK EfW facilities which process a total of almost three million tonnes of municipal solid waste per year.

But EfW won’t necessarily yield instant results for the plant operators. Because of the significant capital costs involved, contracts to receive waste at these sites are often for 20 years in order to realize the required level of finance and to retain competitive gate fees. Economies of scale are an important consideration in EfW projects and a larger plant can usually offer a lower gate fee per tonne to customers.

Opponents of EfW worry that long-term contracts for waste delivery could frustrate future plans to cut waste or improve recycling. Careful contract preparation will be needed for all types of waste treatment in the future and EfW is no different in this respect.

Another area of concern regarding EfW is its emissions and their impact on people and the environment. Recent studies from the National Society for Clean Air, the Environment Agency and a Government report on the health impacts of all waste management show that EfW poses no greater risk than any other option. EfW is highly regulated and can be operated with low emissions. Whilst there is no such thing as a ‘no risk option’ for waste management, the controls that are in place are both stringent and effective. Emissions of dioxins, specifically, has been an area of concern.

In integrated approach involving a variety of waste management options will often form the best practicable environment option.

No one technology can be the answer in all cases. Often a mix of waste management methods will be needed to achieve the best results.

XII. Составьте письменную аннотацию текста.