State primary and secondary schools in England and Wales

The educational system of England and Wales is extremely complex and bewildering. It is very difficult to generalize about particular types of schools as schools differ from one to the other. This is to be expected considering that each school is responsible for its own organization and curriculum. Administration of state schools (maintained schools) is decentralized. The Department of Education and Science is responsible for national educational policy, but it doesn't run any schools, and it doesn't employ teachers, or prescribe curricula or textbooks. These matters are left to the local education authorities (LEAs) who pass the responsibility on to the school governing bodies, schools and head teachers. Each school has its own "board of governers", consisting of teachers, parents, local politicians, members of the local community, businessmen and sometimes pupils. All schools are given a considerable amount of freedom. According to the law, only one subject is compulsory, that is of Religious Instruction.

Schooling for children is compulsory from 5 to 16, though some provision is made for those under 5 (nursery schools, day nurseries), and some pupils remain at school beyond the minimum leaving age of 16, to prepare for further or higher education.

Education within the maintained school system usually comprises two stages - primary and secondary education. The majority of primary schools are mixed. In most counties these schools are subdivided into infant schools (ages 5-7) and junior schools (ages 7-11/12). Infant schools are largely informal. Children are encouraged to read, write and make use of numbers (the three Rs - reading, writing 'rithmetic) and to develop their creative abilities. Subject teaching is rare. The work is based upon the pupils' interests as far as possible. Primary children do all their work with the same class teacher, except for physical education and music, which are often taught by specialist teachers.. The junior stage extends over 4 years. Teaching is often more formal than it is in infant schools. In junior schools children have set periods of Arithmetic, Reading, Composition, History, Geography, Nature Study and other subjects. (Some counties have "middle" schools rather than "junior" schools. (In these counties children go to primary school from 5 to 7/8, middle school from 7/8 to 11/12 or 13 and senior school from 11/12 or 13 to 16.)

At this stage of schooling pupils were often placed in А, В, С or D streams according to their ability and attainment. The most able children were put in the A stream, the least able in the D stream. The lower streams either followed a simplified curriculum, covered less material. Opposition to streaming has increased in recent years, and nowadays some schools have modified forms of streaming, some have unstreamed classes (mixed-ability classes/groups).

The usual age of transfer from primary to secondary school is 11. Тill recently, most junior schoolchildren had to sit for the eleven-plus examination (Secondary Selection Examination) which was important, for it concluded the primary stage of education and decided what kind of secondary school the child will attend. So the results of this exam affected the child's future. It usually consisted of an arithmetic paper, an English paper, and an intelligence test which played the dominant role because it was supposed to determine the child's inborn abilities and his intellectual potential. The intelligence test consisted of a large number of short questions (usually containing between 50 and 100). Here are some examples of typical questions:

1. Write two letters in the brackets to continue the series: a z a y a x a wavau (...) (...)
2. Write a word in the empty brackets so that the three things on the right go together like the three things on the left: Girl (two)feet - horse (...) hooves
3. If 29384791 means "strength" what does 184 mean?
4. Underline the two words in the brackets which always go with the word outside: Tree (park/leaves/birds/bushes/branches).

Etc.

Nearly all the intelligence tests had a time limit of half to three quarters of an hour. The pupils who could not cope adequately with such questions were labelled "retarded" ("unpromising") as early as the age of 11 and often began to believe in their own lack of ability.

Though under the pressure of progressive parents, teachers and educationists, the eleven-plus examination has now been abolished in most counties, the selective procedure at the age of 11 is still preserved in some areas as children are admitted to different secondary schools on the results of various intelligence tests (which substitute for the abolished eleven-plus exam). Where such selection is practiced, children are sent to grammar schools, technical schools, or secondary schools. Grammar schools provide a mainly academic course for selected pupils from the age of 11to 18 or 19. Many grammar schools were founded in the Middle Ages and are mostly single-sex schools. Only those children who have the best results are admitted to these schools. In comparison with other maintained schools grammar schools have better buildings, smaller classes, more highly qualified teachers and often better playfields and sport facilities. They give pupils a much higher level of academic instruction, which can lead to the university. The curriculum includes English Language, English Literature, modern languages, Latin, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, History, Geography, and other subjects. rechnical schools appeared in England at the beginning of the 20^th century. They offer a general education with a technical bias and serve those pupils who are more mechanically inclined. Their curricula feature nore Science and Mathematics. These schools were planned as academic equals to grammar schools but specialized in technical subjects. In fact he standing of the technical school is often lower than that of the grammar school. Children with slightly lower marks are often admitted. There are very few schools of this type in England and Wales.

Secondary modern schools were formed in England in 1944 to provide a n on-academic education up to the minimum school-leaving age of 16 for the children of lesser attainment. The curriculum includes Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, some elementary History and Geography, and more ractical subjects than are included in the grammar school curriculum(cooking, needlework, shorthand, typing, woodwork, metalwork, ardening).In fact this kind of education is secondary only in name. A great majority of secondary modern school pupils leave school half-educated. The selection of children at the age of 11 deprives many talented young people of true educational opportunities. It is believed that inttelligence tests measure children's inborn abilities. Yet, pupils have beеn prepared for these tests either by their parents or by private teachers. rivate coaching is known to produce good results, but the fees are high and accessible only to rich parents. Working-class families can hardly manage them. As a result only a small part of working-class children are admitted to grammar schools.

The selection procedure at the age of 11 aroused a lot of criticism on the part of progressive people in the country. The necessity to organize a school that would accept all the children from a particular area without consideration of their inborn ability or aptitude became urgent in England and Wales. The first schools of this kind, the so-called comprehensive schools began to appear after World War II. These are mainly mixed schools which can provide education for over 1,000 pupils, A much wider range of subjects is offered here than in smaller schools. Ideally they provide all the courses given in grammar, technical and secondary modern schools. The main educational advantages of comprehensive schools are:

1) they are open to all children of all types of ability from a particular area;

2) they are mixed schools;

3) the future of a child is not decided by the results of a selection procedure at the age of 11 and the final choice of a course can be made at a later age;

4) a much wider range of subjects is possible;

5) if necessary, a pupil can change from one course to another without moving to another school;

6) though streaming is preserved, in some comprehensive schools it is modified and made more flexible and some schools do not stream their pupils.

The variety of types of comprehensive schools can be confusing. They can be organized in a number of ways, including schools which take the full secondary age-range from 11 to 18 (all-through schools); schools combining junior and senior comprehensive schools, whose pupils transfer to senior comprehensive schools at 13 or 14 (two-tier schools) and schools with an age range of 11/12 to 16 combined with a sixth-form college or tertiary college for pupils over 16. A number of LEAs have quite a different comprehensive system. They have established middle schools covering various age-ranges between 8 and 13, and upper schools where pupils complete their secondary education. In areas with this system the schools for children from 5 to 8 are called first schools. Comprehensive education has become national policy in 1965 under the Labour Government. But the Conservative Government which came to power in 1979 is determined to reestablish selection in education, to broaden the types of schools that a child can attend, dependent upon parental choice. As the result of this policy some counties have retained the old selective system, some authorities have turned their maintained schools into private schools. The following table illustrates the present organization of state primary and secondary schools in England and Wales.

Though by law all children must receive full-time education between the ages of 5 and 16, formally each child can remain at school for a further two or three years and continue his studies in the sixth form up to the age 18 or 19 providing the school believes he can meet the requirements. Since the course lasts two years, it is usually divided into lower sixth and upper sixth. The sixth-form curriculum offers considerable opportunities for specialist study and is often aimed at university entry. The curriculum is narrowed to about 5 subjects of which the pupil will specialize in 2 or 3. The choice of subjects tends to divide the sixth form into two sides: the Natural Science side (Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology) and the Arts/Humanities side (History, Geography, Latin, foreign languages). Pupils choose their own curriculum and take either a Natural Science course or Arts/Humanities course. In addition to their specialist studies, sixth-form pupils usually follow courses in general education - English, Art, Music, Physical Training and other subjects. Grammar, technical and comprehensive schools give schoolchildren the opportunity to become sixth-form pupils. A great majority of secondary modern school pupils do not get this chance and leave school at the age of 16.

Most children in the sixth form are from middle-class families. They pass the exams (see below) due to private coaching. Working-class children rarely continue their education above the age of 16. Many of those who can afford to carry on can't pass the exams. Social reasons prevent working-class children from obtaining true educational opportunities. Before leaving secondary school between the ages of 16 and 18 schoolchildren may take one of the two sets of examinations. Schools have by law to publish their examination results. The main examinations for secondary school pupils at present are the General Certificate of Education (the GCE exam) and the Certificate of Secondary Education (the CSE exam).

The GCE exam was introduced in 1951. It is held at two levels, Ordinary level ("O" level) and Advanced level ("A" level). Candidates sit for "O" level papers at 15/16 years of age. (In England all examinations are written. In modern languages there is also an oral examination). Candidates can choose up to 12 or 13 subjects from some 46. In practice they choose 6 or 7. Usually they sit for Mathematics, English, a Science subject (Biology, Chemistry, Physics or General Combined Science), a foreign language, History, Geography, and Music. The GCE exam is the most important external examination. It is set and marked by eight independent examination boards, most of which are connected with a university. "O" level candidates are awarded one of five grades ("A", "B", "C", "D", "E") or are ungraded. "0" level grades "А", "В", "С" are considered "pass" grades (those which are necessary to get accepted for further or higher education). GCE "A" level is usually taken at the end of

the sixth form. It is not usually possible to take a Science subject at "A" level without passing "O" level in the subject first. It is believed that candidates may take as many or as few subjects as they like. In fact students hoping to a university must ensure that they take subjects at "O" level and "A" level that meet the entry requirements for their chosen course. Three "A" levels are enough to gain entry to most universities. For most white-collar jobs four or five "O" levels are required.

The CSE exam was introduced in 1965. It is normally taken after 5 years of secondary education by pupils who are of average ability, but unlikely to achieve GCE standard. Any number of subjects can be taken to get this certificate (a separate certificate is awarded for each subject passed). Practically, however, it is enough to pass your exam in only one subject. The CSE exam can be either internal or external. Usually it is internal, and is set and marked by the school teachers. The CSE exam grades -are "1", "2", "3", "4","5". Grade "1" - the highest grade - represents the standard of performance covered often by grade "C" of GCE "O" level. Naturally GCE and CSE certificates have not been represented as equals. This dual system of examinations held at the age of 16 creates a number of difficulties. The grading scheme confuses schools, pupils, parents and employers. Some pupils enter both GCE and CSE examinations in the same subject. Some exam boards set easier exams than others. It is easier to get good grades in some subjects than it is in others. The present system of exams is not efficient. For several years now, some examination boards have, offered a single sixtee'n-plus examination (in English, History, French) rather than offering two separate examinations at CSE and GCE "O" level. This experiment has proved more or less successful. Under pressure from educationists and other progressive people the government has accepted proposals that the present system of exams should be replaced by a single system of examining at the age of 16. From 1988 the present CSE and GCE "O" level exams are supposed to be combined into a new General Certificate of Secondary Education (the GCSE) exam. The "A" level examination will remain. From the foregoing, it seems reasonable to conclude that the system of secondary education in England and Wales still has a long way to go to ensure that all children realize their optimum potential. According to official documents the modern educational system is supposed to provide equal opportunity for all, but in fact it sustains inequality. It is still class-divided and selective. The comprehensive school brings about a general improvement in the system of secondary education but the Conservative government has tried to prevent the complete comprehensivazation of education. In summary then, one can say that there are two main tendencies in the secondary education at present:

1) attempts at its unification;

2) selection in education;

Further fundamental reorganization of secondary schooling is necessary to

ensure true comprehensive system in England and Wales.

1. In Text 2 find equivalents to the following words and phrases:

1. по закону
2. при условии что
3. удовлетворять вступительным требованиям
4. предоставлять значительные возможности
5. учебный план сужается до пяти предметов
6. гуманитарные науки/естественные науки
7. в дополнение к... / вдобавок
8. изучать курс общеобразовательных предметов
9. давать/предоставлять возможность
10. подавляющее большинство
11. получать возможность
12. см. ниже
13. благодаря чему-лю
14. редко
15. после шестнадцати лет
16. мешают/не позволяют получить хорошее образование
17. на практике
18. сдавать экзамен по математике
19. экзамен составляется и проверяется
20. экзаменационная комиссия оценивается по пятибалльной шкале или не оценивается
21. быть принятым (в университет)
22. считается, что …
23. ученики, намеревающиеся поступать в университет
24. поступить/получить право поступления (в университет)
25. которые вряд ли достигнут
26. практически
27. двойственная система
28. создавать некоторые трудности
29. система оценок
30. запутывать, приводить в замешательство
31. работодатель
32. (не)эффективный
33. оказался более-менее успешным
34. предложение
35. единая система
36. предполагается…
37. предстоит ещё многое сделать
38. максимально реализовать свои возможности
39. предоставлять всем равные возможности
40. способствовать неравенству
41. вносить некоторые улучшения
42. подводя итоги попытки чего-л.

2. Match the following definitions with words and phrases from Text a:

1. the last stage of school in England and Wales for students between the ages of 16 and 18. Students in study for A-LEVEL examinations.

2. something that a rule, law, contract etc states that you must do

3. to be an expert in a particular part of a subject or profession

4. sciences that deal with the physical world, considered as a group or as individual subjects such as physics, chemistry, or biology

5. subjects of study that are not scientific, such as history, literature, and languages; subjects such as history, literature, and philosophy that are based on the study of human culture and ideas

6. to get something you want or need, especially by going through a process that is difficult

7. to start to use a new system, process, or law for the first time

8. languages that are still spoken today, especially considered as a subject of study at school or university

9. a letter or number that shows the quality of a student's work

10. a successful result in an examination or test

11. courses of study or training that some people do after they have left school when they do not go to university.

12. to make certain that something happens or is done

13. work in offices rather than doing physical work.

14. not likely to happen

15. the standard to which someone does something such as job or examination

16. to make someone feel that they do not understand something

17. smth that works well and produces good results by using the available time, money, supplies etc in the most effective way

18. achieving the result that you want

19. supporting social and political change that aims to make a system fairer

20. a plan or suggestion, especially a formal one that a group has to consider

21. to provide the conditions in which something can happen or exist

22. a situation in which people are not equal because some groups have more opportunities, power, money etc than others

23. the state of being better than before, or the process of making something better than it was before

24. an attitude, habit, or situation that is starting to develop in a particular way.

3. In Text 2 find equivalents to the following words and phrases:

1. сложный и запутанный
2. управлять школой
3. предписывать учебные планы
4. органы управления
5. состоять из двух ступеней
6. в основном (2)
7. считать (числа)
8. способности (2)
9. длиться более четырех лет
10. упрощенный учебный план
11. проходить (учебный) материал
12. переход из… в…(ударение)
13. до недавних пор
14. сдавать экзамен
15. арифметика (транскрипция)
16. врожденный
17. почти
18. под давлением заменять что-л. чем-л.
19. по сравнению с…
20. высококвалифицированный
21. с техническим уклоном
22. репутация, положение
23. лишать кого-л. чего-л.
24. доступный
25. без учета чего-л.
26. назреть (о проблеме)
27. широкий круг предметов
28. в более старшем возрасте
29. переходить в другую школу
30. более гибкий (метод)
31. разнообразие
32. возрастная группа
33. завершить образование
34. при лейбористском правительстве
35. прийти к власти
36. решительно настроенный в идеале