Types of Affixes

Affixes by definition are always bound. They are divided into two different types depending on where they attach to the root.

· Prefixes occur before a root.

· Suffixes occur after a root.

The two types of affixes also differ in how they affect the meaning of the word.

Prefixes modify the meaning of the root in some way. Often, they provide spatial information about an action named by the root.

Their most important function of Suffixes is to indicate the part of speech of the word. Suffixes identify a word as being a NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERB. They can change the word from one part of speech to another. In fact, multiple suffixes can be added to a single root, changing it first to one part of speech and then another. For example,

verb -->	verbal-->	verbalize -->	verbalization
NOUN	ADJECTIVE	VERB	NOUN

2. Different ways of wordbuilding in English. Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation. AFFIXATION Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. (e.g. „educate” is a verb, „education” is a noun, and „ child” is a noun, „childhood” is also a noun). There are different classifications of suffixes: 1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here: a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism), b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious), c) verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize), -ify (micrify), d) adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote: a) the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student), b) nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English), c) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), -ati (literati), d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette), e) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability). 3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into: a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation (computerization), b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish), c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness). 4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups: a) native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly. b) Romanic, such as: -tion, -ment, -able, -eer. c) Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize. d) Russian, such as -nik.5. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups: a) productive, such as: -er, -ize, --ly, -ness. b) semi-productive, such as: -eer, -ette, -ward. c) non-productive, such as: -ard (drunkard), -th (length).Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as: -er can form nouns with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably, -ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt). Prefixation Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) (cf over the table).The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles: 1. Semantic classification: a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc, b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect), c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc.2. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc. b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re- etc. c) Greek, such as: sym-, hyper- etc.There is a group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con - act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones. 3. Productive ways of word-building in English. COMPOSITIONComposition is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphenated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood- vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow- white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphenated spelling.Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood- vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. There has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, pinguin suit etc. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. There are two characteristic features of English compounds: a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. „ a green-house ” and „ a green house ”.b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and-doing etc. WAYS OF FORMING COMPOUND WORDS.Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of: a) reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplication combined with sound interchange, e.g. rope-ripe, b) conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc, c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc, d) analogy, e.g. lie-in (on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into: a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter, b) adjectives, such as: free-for-all, power-happy, c) verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck, d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst, e) prepositions, such as: into, within, f) numerals, such as: fifty-five. 2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into: a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop, b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element: vowels „o” or „i” or the consonant „s”, e.g. {„astrospace”, „handicraft”, „sportsman ”), c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or-die. 3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top,b) derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer, c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter, d) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford. 4. According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into: a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different: with comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.g. love-sick, with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore etc b) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, so-so, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie. 5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe. CONVERSION Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that, e.g. a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body e.g. to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail, b) verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to wolf, to ape, c) verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,d) verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket, e) verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to week-end. Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g. to clean, to slim etc. Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:a) instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move, b) process or state e.g. sleep, walk, c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a scold,d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase, e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk. Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the Singular form and denote momentaneous actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as: to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim. SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES Substantivization is the result of ellipsis (syntactical shortening) when a word combination with a semantically strong attribute loses its semantically weak noun (man, person etc), e.g. „ a grown-up person ” is shortened to „ a grown-up ”. In cases of perfect substantivization the attribute takes the paradigm of a countable noun, e.g. a criminal, criminals, a criminal’s (mistake), criminals’ (mistakes). Such words are used in a sentence in the same function as nouns, e.g. I am fond of musicals. (musical comedies).There are also two types of partly substantivized adjectives: a) those which have only the plural form and have the meaning of collective nouns, such as: sweets, news, empties, finals, greens, b) those which have only the singular form and are used with the definite article. They also have the meaning of collective nouns and denote a class, a nationality, a group of people, e.g. the rich, the English, the dead. „STONE WALL” COMBINATIONS.The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from nouns is the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot of word combinations of the type, e.g. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle etc. If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English (adjective + noun). This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the following facts:1. „Stone” denotes some quality of the noun „wall”.2. „Stone” stands before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the function of an attribute do in English.3. „Stone” is used in the Singular though its meaning in most cases is plural, and adjectives in English have no plural form.4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the Comparative or the Superlative degree, e.g. the bottomest end of the scale. 5. The first component can have an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs, e.g. a purely family gathering. 6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a proper adjective to characterize the same noun, e.g. lonely bare stone houses. 7. After the first component the pronoun „one” can be used instead of a noun, e.g. I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one. There are different semantic relations between the components of „stone wall” combinations. E.I. Chapnik classified them into the following groups:1. time relations, e.g. evening paper, 2. space relations, e.g. top floor, 3. relations between the object and the material of which it is made, e.g. steel helmet, 4. cause relations, e.g. war orphan, 5. relations between a part and the whole, e.g. a crew member, 6. relations between the object and an action, e.g. arms production, 7. relations between the agent and an action e.g. government threat, price rise, 8. relations between the object and its designation, e.g. reception hall, 9. the first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized object, e.g. Clinton government, Forsyte family, 10. the first component denotes the field of activity of the second component, e.g. language teacher, psychiatry doctor, 11. comparative relations, e.g. moon face, 12. qualitative relations, e.g. winter apples. ABBREVIATION In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical. Graphical abbreviationsGraphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, e.g. for example a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No - number (numero), p.a. - a year (per annum), d - penny (dinarius), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is (id est) etc. Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced „in the afternoon” (post meridiem) and „ after death” (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them: a) days of the week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue - Tuesday etc b) names of months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug - August etc. c) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, Alas - Alaska etc. e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc. f) military ranks, e.g. capt. -captain, col. - colonel, sgt – sergeant etc. g) scientific degrees, e.g. B.A. - Bachelor of Arts, D.M. - Doctor of Medicine. h) units of time, length, weight, e.g. f. / ft -foot/feet, sec. - second, in. -inch, mg. - milligram etc. The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. „ m ” can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, „l.p. ” can be read as long-playing, low pressure. Initial abbreviationsInitialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. - joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as СОЛТ, now a translation variant is used (ОСВ -Договор об ограничении стратегических вооружений).This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO - НЛО, CП - JV etc. There are three types of initialisms in English: a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc. c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System). Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of wordbuilding: a) affixation, e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer, ex-POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc. b) conversion, e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules), c) composition, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc. d) there are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V-day etc. In some cases the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three –Ds (Three dimensions) - стереофильм. Abbreviations of wordsAbbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. In such cases as „ fantasy ” and „fancy ”, „ fence” and „ defence ” we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as „ laboratory ” and „ lab ”, we have different styles.Abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning. It produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc. As a rule pronouns, numerals, interjections. conjunctions are not abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in one’s teens (apheresis from numerals from 13 to 19).Lexical abbreviationsLexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. Here we can mention a group of words ending in „o”, such as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in Modern English a number of words where „o” is added as a kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) - небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro (African) -прическа под африканца etc. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped, e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter), thuse (enthuse) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine) maths (mathematics). Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. „c” can be substituted by „k” before „e” to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax(facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituded by letters characteristic of native English words. 4. Non-productive (secondary) ways of wordbuilding. SOUND INTERCHANGESound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages.The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists., e.g. to strike - stroke, to sing - song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc.In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal position, e.g. bath - to bathe, life - to live, breath - to breathe etc. STRESS INTERCHANGEStress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. ` accent - to ac`cent. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as: to af`fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract - `extract etc. SOUND IMITATION (Onomatopoeia) It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc. b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc. c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc. BLENDS Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component and the beginning of the second component. As a result we have a compound-shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word „ smog ” from two synonyms: smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. Blends formed from two synonyms are: slanguange, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial), Medicare (medical care), magalog (magazine catalogue), slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist (slang linguist) etc. BACK FORMATION (Reversion) It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the languauge as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word „ beggar ” was borrowed into English the final syllable „ ar ” was pronounced in the same way as the English -er and Englishmen formed the verb „ to beg ” by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion), to reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television) etc.