Speak about advantages and disadvantages of travelling by train

Text 8.TRAIN ACCIDENTS

Although the vast majority of train accidents minor, any time a pedestrian or motor vehicle comes into contact with a moving train, the outcome is almost always tragic. Although the following statistic sounds unrealistic, the fact remains that a train accident occurs every 90 minutes in the United States. Below are some of the common types of train accidents:

• Collision with another train

• Derailment

• Collision with a motor vehicle·

• Accident due to mechanical failure/negligence (e.g. brake failure)

Railroad accident causes:

• Defective railroad tracks

• Aggressive motor vehicle operation - most collisions with automobiles are attributed to aggressive driving)

• Mechanical failure - usually a result of insufficient maintenance staff or funding for repairs

• Heavy cargo loads - heavier loads can result in derailment and other accidents.

Like other "carriers" (e.g. planes, buses) railroad companies must maintain strict safety standards and are ultimately responsible for passenger safety. But since many train accidents involve a government owned or operated company, claims must comply with specific guidelines including strict time constraints for reporting injuries and filing suits.

Arizona Train Accident Cases

Arizona railroad accident lawyer Sam Cullan, MD, and attorney Gene Cullan, MD, have handled many railroad accident cases. A railroad accident can be devastating, often involving catastrophic injury and death. In spite of the fact that railroad safety has been a concern since the late 1800's, there are an alarming number of dangerous railroad crossings throughout the United States. Other types of Arizona

railroad accident cases a lawyer at attorney Sam Cullan, MD's firm can help with include those involving defective equipment such as crossing lights and guards and derailments. In many cases the train crew may be pressured to meet deadlines and may speed through a community at an illegal speed. The crew may fail to sound the horn to warn the train is approaching. Though most railroad employees are very diligent hard workers, head on collisions may occur due to fatigue or drug use.

Railroad Accident Cases Involving Dangerous Crossings

Many factors need to be analyzed in evaluating whether a crossing is dangerous. One of the main concerns is whether the railroad company failed to maintain the crossing. In spite of federal and state regulations, many railroad companies have allowed vegetation surrounding the crossing to grow out of control thereby making it difficult for the motorist to see an oncoming train. Other crossings may be dangerous due to the angle at which the road and the track meet. The crossing may be too close to the road. The approach to the track may be obstructed due to the grade of a hill. It may be difficult to see the track in both directions due to a curve or the angle they intersect. Warning signs may be missing or inappropriately placed. The track and crossing (including roughness of track, foliage, and signage) may be in such disrepair that the track appears to be abandoned giving the motorist the impression that they do not need to look for a train. In some cases a railroad, city or county may have been ordered to make the crossing safer and failed to do so in timely fashion. If, due to a railroad company's negligence, you or a loved one has been in an Arizona railroad accident, attorney Sam Cullan, MD, and lawyer Gene Cullan, MD, can help you get the fair compensation you are entitled to.

 

Railroad companies send teams to the scene of wreck immediately. When a railroad accident occurs, the Railroad Company immediately dispatches a team of investigators to the scene to protect the railroad company's interests. Frequently, the Railroad Company is notified of the wreck before medical personnel, state patrol or other law enforcement officers are notified. Sometimes, the railroad's team is on site before the state patrol or other local law enforcement officers have arrived or concluded their investigation.

 

It is essential that you quickly have the scene investigated by your own Arizona railroad accident lawyer. Attorney Gene Cullan, MD, has extensive training in accident reconstruction, and will work to insure that evidence is not lost, destroyed or tampered with. We cannot stress how important it is that the injured person's family have a team of experts go to the scene of the train accident. Federal law requires trains be equipped with computers (known as "black boxes") that record data regarding the train. This includes but is not limited to speed, time, ~Taking distance, train, locomotive throttle position, front and end brake pipe pressure, brake pipe reduction, horn and bell use. There are many types of computer data recorders being used. The information can be extremely important in analyzing why a train accident occurred. Expert testimony from a train accident reconstructionist is mandatory.

 

WHAT TO DO:

1. Comment on the following:

How frequent are train accidents nowadays? Why?

 

Render the contents of the text in short.

UNIT II

TRAVELLING BY AIR

Before you read…

Have you ever travelled by air?

Do you consider air travel more convenient than travelling by train? Why?

 

 Text 1.AIRPORT

An airport is a facility where aircraft can take off and land. At the very minimum, an airport consists of one runway (or helipad), but other common components are hangars and terminal buildings. Apart from these, an airport may have a variety of facilities and infrastructure, including fixed base operator services, air traffic control, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. The terms airfield and airstrip may also be used to refer to a facility that has nothing more than a runway.

Airports vary in size, with smaller or less-developed airports often having only a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for international flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete.

The longest public-use runway in the world is at Ulyanovsk-Vostochny International Airport, in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It has a length of 16,404ft.

Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include parking lots, tank, farms and access roads. Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and ramps. Access from landside areas to airside areas is tightly controlled at most airports. Passengers on commercial flights access airside areas through terminals, where they can purchase tickets, clear security, check or claim luggage and board aircraft. The waiting areas which provide passenger access to aircraft are typically called concourses, although this term is often used interchangeably with terminal.

The area where aircraft park next to a terminal to load passengers and baggage is known as a ramp. Parking areas for aircraft away from terminals are generally called aprons.

Both large and small airports can be towered or uncontrolled, depending on air traffic density and available funds. Due to their high capacity and busy airspace, most international airports have air traffic control located on site.

Customs facilities for international flights define an international airport, and often require a more conspicuous level of physical security. International airports generally have a complex of buildings where passengers can embark on airliners, and where cargo can be stored and loaded.

The largest international airports are often located next to freeways or are served by their own freeways. Often, traffic is fed into two access roads, designed as loops, one sitting on top of the other. One level is for departing passengers and the other is for arrivals. Many airports also have light rail lines or other mass transit systems directly connected to the main terminals.

Most international airports have shops and food courts. These services usually provide the passengers food and drinks before they get on to their flight. Many recognizable chain food restaurants have opened branches in large airports to serve often hungry passengers.

International areas usually have a duty-free shop where travellers are not required to pay the usual duty fees on items. Larger airlines often operate member-only lounges for premium passengers.

Airports have a captive audience, and consequently the prices charged for food is generally higher than are available elsewhere in the region. However, some airports now regulate food costs to keep them comparable to so-called "street prices".

In addition to people, airports are responsible for moving large volumes of cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjacent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air modes of transportation.

The earliest airplane landing sites were simply open, grassy fields. The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. Early airfields were often built for the purpose of entertainment. These aerodromes consisted of a grassy field, with hangar for storage and servicing of airplanes, and observation stands for the visitors.

Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of regular landing fields. Airplanes had to approach these from certain directions. This led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope.

Following the war, some of these military airfields added commercial facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Le Bourget, near Paris. The first international airport to open was the Croydon Airport, in South London. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was built at Konigsberg, Germany. The airports of this era used a paved "apron", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier airplanes.

The first lighting used on an airport was during the later part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction.

Following World War II, airport design began to become more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.

Airports are required to have safety precautions in most countries. Rules vary in different countries, but there are common elements worldwide. Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, airport security has been dramatically increased worldwide.

Outside the terminal, there is a large team of people who work in concert to ensure aircraft can land, take off, and move around quickly and safely. These processes are largely invisible to passengers, but they can be extraordinarily complex at large airports.

Air traffic control (or АТС) is system whereby ground-based controllers direct aircraft movements, usually via radio. This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in complex operations where traffic moves in all three dimensions. Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into two main areas: ground and tower.

Ground Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated ‘movement areas’, except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, and a wide array of other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to take off it will stop short of the runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control.

Tower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers use radar to identify and accurately locate an aircraft's position in three-dimensional space. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic and do not disrupt operations.

Before takeoff, pilots usually check an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for information about airport conditions where they exist. The ATIS contains information about weather, which runway and traffic patterns are in use, and other information that pilots should be aware of.

Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog. On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting is white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edge.

Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.

Planes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance.

Air safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations. Commercial airfields include one or more emergency vehicles and their crew that are specially equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammable airplane fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats, hijacking, and terrorist activities.

Potential airfield hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and environmental conditions such as ice or snow. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material doesn't become a projectile and enter an engine duct. Similar concerns apply to birds nesting near an airfield, and crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence. In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings.

The traffic generated by airports both in the air and on the surface can be a major source of aviation noise and air pollution which may interrupt nearby residents' sleep or, in extreme cases, be harmful to their health. The construction of new airports, or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on the countryside, historical sites, local flora and fauna. As well, due to the risk of collision between birds and airplanes, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds to ensure the safety of air travellers.

The construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be susceptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, because they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.

In the view of aforesaid we can come to the following conclusion that airports are very complicated and sophisticated but interesting phenomena in our life that on the one hand make our trips comfortable, convenient and exciting and on the other hand are considered an extremely dangerous business.

WHAT TO DO:

1. Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

Air traffic control, paved runways, parking lots, tank farms, access roads, clear security, air control density, customs facilities, land into the wind.

2. What is meant by the following words and word combinations? You may begin with:

-It’s a notion (word) by which…

It’s a thing (term) that…

Baggage claim, a ramp, aprons, light rail lines, a duty-free shop, cargo airlines, approach lighting, safety precautions, metal screening, adverse weather conditions, emergency vehicles, susceptible to fog.

3. Work with your partner. You could possibly ask each other in turn:

1) What kind of facility is an airport?

2) Do airports vary in size?

3) What do outside areas include?

4) What is a ramp?

5) Why are some airports towered while others are uncontrolled?

6) What are customs facilities for international flights like?

7) Are there any services to provide passengers with food?

8) What are landing sites like?

9) What is airport security like? Why has airport security been dramatically increased world wide of late?

10) What do potential airfield hazards include?

11) Why is the construction of airports often resisted by local residents?

Text 2.CHECKINGIN

The days of arriving at the airport three hours before your flight leaves to queue up for hours at the check-in desk are numbered. With so many different ways to check-in you don't always have to spend time in line. However, with so many check-in options, it can be tough choosing the best method. Use this guide to find out the pros and cons of each method and to choose the one best for you.

Online check-in

Online check-in allows you to complete the process yourself on the airline's website. Typically, this can be done between 24 hours and 90 minutes before the flight is due to depart. When you check-in online you'll need to verify all your flight details, choose a seat if you have not already selected one, choose meals if applicable and confirm that you are planning to take the flight. Some airlines will then allow you to print out your boarding pass using our own printer; others will require you to pick up your boarding pass from a self-service kiosk at the airport. If you have bags to check-in there is usually a bag drop-off point in the airport. Bags will need to be dropped off here at least an hour before departure.

Pros: The quickest and easiest way to check-in, you can do it from the privacy of your own home or office, avoid queues at the airport, and save on time before you fly.

Cons: If the airline expects you to print the ticket yourself, you need access to a printer. Photocopies of boarding passes are not accepted. If travelling in a group, each passenger often needs to check-in individually.

Self-service kiosks

Self-service kiosks are available for most of the large airlines in most of the large airports. Though you still have to get to the airport before you check-in, as you would at the desk, lines are normally shorter as the process is much quicker, and bags to check-in can be dropped at baggage drop point. You normally need to have an e-ticket or a paper ticket with a magnetic strip. The machine will often read your passport for you and ask you to select the destination of your flight. It should then automatically bring up the correct details. Kiosks are typically open between 24 hours and 90 minutes before a flight departs.

Pros: An efficient way to check-in at the airport. As kiosks open for flights many hours before check-in desks, lines are almost always shorter. If you live close to the airport, it's also possible to check-in up to a day before your flight leaves. This can be particularly useful if you have a very early morning flight, for example. Cons: Not all airlines or airports operate self-service kiosks, and those that do may have restrictions. It is important to check with the airline before you plan on using this method, and check that it is available for your specific route as well. Some airlines will only let you use self-service kiosks if you are travelling with hand luggage only. Children travelling as unaccompanied minors are normally not allowed to use self-service check-in.

Mobile check-in

To check-in with your mobile, visit the airline's website. Select check-in and retrieve your booking with our booking reference. Click on the "check-in" button and you'll receive a SMS with a boarding pass. Bring this to the airport with you.

Pros: Makes checking-in a breeze.

Cons: If you forget your phone or the battery dies, you'll need to dash to a computer or self-service machine (at the airport) to print out a boarding pass. As mobile check-in is in its early days, not all terminals are able to process these types of boarding passes.

Check-in desk

The traditional method of check-in is to arrive at the airport (usually between three hours and one hour before the flight departs, depending on the airline and your destination) and get in line at the desk to receive your boarding pass and hand over your luggage. Check-in times are normally earlier for international flights, while some domestic routes may only require check-in 45 minutes before departure.

Pros: Human contact at the desk means that this is the least confusing option. If you've got any special requirements, you'll need to check-in at the desk. There's also a (very slight) chance that you may get an upgrade if you're there in person. If you want to get bumped from your flight, then you'll need to be there.

 Cons: This can be the slowest and most tiresome way to check-in. If you're unlucky, queues can be long, and there's no option of arriving just before the flight leaves.

Other options:

Some airlines offer very attractive options for check-in from certain resorts. Virgin Atlantic, for example, will let you check-in at some hotels in the Caribbean, from Downtown Disney in Orlando or at the airport train station in Hong Kong. Staff can check you in, give you a boarding pass and even take your bags to the airport. This is perfect if you want to spend a bit more time on the beach.

WHAT TO DO:

1. Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

to be due to depart, to verify all details, to be applicable, a bag drop-off point, the privacy of your own home or office, unaccompanied minors, booking reference, a boarding pass, to hand over your luggage, domestic routes,

2. Comment and expand on the following statement:

The days of arriving at the airport three hours before your flight leaves to queue up for hours at the check-in desk are numbered.

3. Answer the following questions:

1. What check-in options do you know? What are their pros and cons?

2. What are your seating preferences aboard a plane (window seat/aisle seat/bulkhead seat)?

3. What can reduce queuing during check-in procedure?

4. Do you agree that check-in options vary per airline?

5. Are there any advantages of booking tickets online?

6. Do you usually arrive in good time for your flight?

7. When can a traveller be decleared a no-show?

4. Describe a typical departure lounge using the English equivalents for the following:

Медпункт, комната матери и ребенка, терминалы, аптека, международные рейсы, зал вылетов, регистрация, стойки регистрации, медпункт, кассы авиакомпаний, почта, банкомат, информационная стойка, стойка для самостоятельной регистрации, паспортный контроль, таможенный контроль.