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(Kruisinga E. A Handbook of Present-Day English Part II, vol. 1,2,3/ Groningen, 1931)
A syntactic group is a combination of words that forms a distinct part of a sentence. If the definition of the terms word and sentence could be regarded as settled, the definition of the term syntactic group, and its delimitation with respect to the other terms, might be perfectly clear. In many cases it is by no means a simple matter, however, to decide whether a given number of syllables is to be looked upon as a single word or as a group of words. [...] The delimitation between syntactic groups and sentences, which depends on the definition of sentence, is equally uncertain. But for the practical or scientific student of language the inconvenience is not so great as it may seem [… ].
1922. With regard to the syntactic word-groups we shall have to study their structure in the first place; from this point of view they are distinguished as close or loose.
We speak of a close group when one of the members is syntactically the leading element of the group. We speak of a loose group when each element is comparatively independent of the other members. Examples of close groups are nouns with an attributive noun or adjective, or with an article or a possessive pronoun; also the groups of nouns and pronouns with a verb stem or participle or a verbal ing [...]. The loose groups, on the contrary, leave the individual words unaffected by their membership of the group, as in men and women [...].
STRUCTURE OF CLOSE SYNTACTIC GROUPS
1923. Close groups can best be enumerated when we arrange them according to their leading member: we may thus distinguish verb groups, noun groups, adjective groups, adverb groups, preposition groups. The pronoun groups are most suitably included in the noun or adjective groups to which they are evident parallels.
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Verb Groups
1925. In the close verb groups the term verb denotes the verb both as the leading element of a predicate and in a non-predicate function.
A. Leading Verb with Verb: you can go; came staggering towards me, finished. undressing, was heard grimly asking; your shoe has come undone.
B. Leading Verb with Noun: to hear a noise; we killed two hares; to write a letter; to be a member, etc.
C. Leading Verb with Adjective: to seem cheerful; to be quiet.
D. Leading Verb with Compound Personal Pronoun: to stir oneself.
E. Leading Verb with Adverb: he lives here; he will come early; running quickly; possibly thinking, not imagining.
Noun Groups
1926. A. Leading Noun with Noun: a village church, a country doctor; Mr. Jones, King Edward, Mary's dress.
B. Leading Noun with Adjective: mild weather; a pleasant man.
C. Leading Noun with Pronoun or Numeral: my reason; six horses.
D. Leading Noun with Adverb: the above remark; I have got some rooms for us in that little house up there on the terrace.
E. Leading Noun with Participle: the desired channel of the conversation.
F. Leading Noun with Verbal Ing: the seeming sleeper; it's no use men being angry
Extended Groups
1930. It is possible, indeed very common, for a member of a group to be a group in itself; thus [...]in the groups containing a noun, the latter is often accompanied by an adjective, etc. Such groups are called extended groups; the member that is a group in itself is called a sub-group. […]
STRUCTURE OF LOOSE SYNTACTIC GROUPS
2026. The members of a loose group may be connected by other words or not. Accordingly we distinguish linked groups and unlinked groups. An example of a linked group is: five and twenty; of an unlinked group: a low soft breathing.
It is of importance to consider the number of the members of a group. Accordingly we distinguish double, triple, quadruple, etc. groups. It is generally unnecessary to treat groups of more than three members separately; they can be referred to as multiple groups.
2027. When a linked group contains more than two members a further classification is necessary. For it may happen that some members are linked, whereas others are not: this produces the distinction of full-linking and part-linking. [...].
2028. Both the linked and the unlinked groups may be of two kinds: they may be broken or continuous. We call a group broken (a) when its members are separated by a clear pause; a group is called continuous (b) when there is no such pause between its members.
a. When he drew nearer he perceived it to be a spring van, ordinary in shape, but singular in colour, this being a lurid red.
b. ... the third and only remaining house was that of Captain Vye. [...]
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В. Прочтите статью Х.Уайтхолла и ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. Какой лингвистической школе принадлежит автор?
2. Как автор описывает метод, который использует?
3. Какой термин использует он для обозначения словосочетания?
4. Каким образом классификация Уайтхолла соотносится с классификацией Л.Блумфилда?
H. WHITEHALL
WORD-GROUPS
(H. Whitehall. Structural Essentials of English)
2.1. The grammatical description of any language is made scientifically possible by isolating certain recurrent units of expression and examining their distribution in contexts. The largest of these units are sentences, which can be decomposed into smaller constituent units: first word - groups, then the affixes and combining forms entering into the formation of words, and finally the significant speech-sounds (phonemes) of the language. Normally, we would first isolate the smallest units (the phonemes) and their written representations and then work up gradually to the sentence units. With written English, however, it is advantageous to reverse this procedure and to start by isolating and classifying the word-groups. Because of the nature of the English language, which, on the one hand, uses word-groups as the main sentence constituents, and, on the other, uses certain word-group types as sentences, the word-group has become our main structural unit of expression — the brick with which we build up edifices of discourse. 2.2. In written English, a word-group is a cluster of two or more words which functions either independently or in a longer sequence of statement as a grammatical unit. Thus, the word-group I was foolish can function as an independent grammatical unit in the sentence I was foolish(.), but it functions as the complement in the more extended sentence He said I was foolish. In spoken English, word-groups are marked off either as independent utterances (spoken sentences) or grammatically significant segments of utterances by various combinations of what have been called configurational features: (1) rise or fall in voice loudness; (2) rise or fall in voice tone; (3) interruption of the normal transition between one speech-sound and the next. According to the ways in which they are used and constituted, two main types of English word-groups can be distinguished: headed (endocentric) and non-headed (exocentric).
The terms “endocentric” and “exocentric” for syntactic constructions were introduced by L. Bloomfield. In his book Language we find the following explanation of these terms: “Every syntactic construction shows us two (or sometimes more) free forms combined in a phrase, which we may call the resultant phrase. The resultant phrase may belong to a form-class other than that of any constituent. For instance, John ran is neither a nominative expression (like John) nor a finite verb expression (like ran). Therefore we say that English actor-action construction is exocentric: the resultant phrase belongs to the form-class of no immediate constituent. On the other hand, the resultant phrase may belong to the same form-class as one (or more) of the constituents. For instance, poor John is a proper-noun expression, and so is the constituent John; the forms John and poor John have, on the whole, the same functions. Accordingly, we say that the English character-substance construction (as in poor John, fresh milk,
and the like) is an endocentric construction.” (L. Bloomfield, Language, New York, 1935, p. 194.)
2.3. Headed groups have this peculiarity: all the grammatical functions open to them as groups can also be exercised by one expression within them. They are, so to speak, expansions of this expression, called the head of the group, and it is possible to substitute the head for the group or the group for the head within the same grammatical frame (i. e., in the same context) without causing any formal dislocation of the overall grammatical structure. For instance, in Fresh fruit is good(.), the headed word-group fresh fruit serves as subject; in 1 like fresh fruit (.), it serves as complement. If we substitute the head expression fruit for fresh fruit in either case, the grammatical frame subject, verb, complement will remain formally undisturbed:
Fresh fruit is good.
Fruit is good.
I like fresh fruit.
I like fruit.
Similarly:
All this nice fresh fruit is good.
Fruit is good.
Singing songs is fun.
Singing is fun.
I like singing songs.
I like singing.
In these sets of examples, the head expressions fruit and singing are freely substitutable grammatically for the word-groups of which they are constituents. In both cases the italicized word-groups are headed groups.
2.4. Non-headed groups, unlike headed groups, can enter into grammatical constructions not open to any single expression within them. No word within the group can substitute for the entire group and make sense, nor can the entire group substitute within the same surrounding context for any one of its constituent parts. Such groups are quite literally non-headed Ответ 3 (конец):
I saw a book of poems.
A book of poems is what I saw.
In these sentences, neither I nor saw is substitutable for I saw, and neither of nor poems can replace of poems. To attempt such substitutions would have these results:
I — a book — poems.
— Saw a book of —
Alternatively:
I saw saw a book of of poems.
I I saw a book of poems poems.
Thus a non-headed group has grammatical functions quite distinct from those of any of its constituent expressions. […]
С. Определите и классифицируйте словосочетания в терминах известных вам классификаций (традиционной и дескриптивной школ):
1. arrived at a hall in Plymouth
2. last night
3. for a social evening
4. with Devon Labour Party workers;
5. was fond of aunt Emily and Dick and even their two sons, Tom and Sidney
6. thirteen and fourteen respectively
7. noisy and clumsy,
8. heading straight for the miles
Литература
1. Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. – М., 2008
2. Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. - М., 2010.
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3. Гуревич В.В. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков. – М., 2010
4. Камшилова О.Н. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка (электр.учебник) – СПб., СПбУУЭ, 2011.
5. Ривлина А.А. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка (электр.учебник) – реж. доступа – http://www.bgpu.ru/site/content/kafs/engphil/rivlina/grammar/lectures/
6. Biber D., Johansson S., Leech G., Conrad S., Finegan E. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Longman, 2008. – http://www.knigka.info/2008/08/23/longman-grammar-of-spoken-and-written.html
