Complete the following sentences

1. Geographical, geological, climatic, religious influences _________________ the formation of a particular style.

2. Geography, geology, climate, religion and many others factors __________________ the development of architecture.

3. Architecture ________________ the mother of the arts of sculpture, painting, and the allied decorative crafts.

4. Architecture _______________ the art with which we all are in daily contact

5. The history of architecture ____________________ a record of continuous evolution.

6. A glance along the past ages _________________________ architecture as a history of social condition progress.

7. Architectural styles ____________________________naturally into several groups.________________

To aim at, to contribute to, to be, to fall, to influence on, to be, to reveal

4. Answer the questions:

1. What does the history of architecture aim at?

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2. What does influence on architecture?

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3. What is the best way to learn about architecture?

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4. What is architecture?

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5. What is the history of architecture?

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6. What is architecture connected in all periods with?

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7. What groups do architectural styles fall?

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5. Continue the following sentences:

1. The history of architecture________________________________________

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2. The best way to learn about architecture_____________________________

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3. Architecture is _________________________________________________

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4. Architectural styles _____________________________________________

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6. Explain in English. Use the following phrases to express your opinion:

It seems to me that....

I would like to say that....

I guess that...

I suppose that...

I am sure that

1. The best way to learn about architecture is to study actual buildings and museums.

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2. The history of architecture is a record of continuous evolution.

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Give your opinion on the topic

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8. Give a short summary of the text.

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Give annotation of the text

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CIVIL ENGINEERING

The term «civil engineering» was first used to distinguish the work of the engineer with a non-military purpose from military engineering. But increasing specialization has led to subdivision of engineering into civil, mechanical, electrical, and other forms, and the term «civil engineering» is usually applied to such as excavation and embankment, the construction of railways, bridges, docks, and harbours, the control of water by dams and reservoirs, canals, aqueducts, and pipelines, and the reclamation of land.

Civil engineering did not develop until the rise of Rome. The Cloaca Maxima, the great drain of Rome, was built in the sixth century В. С. It is in existence today, but the oldest part still standing probably dates from the third century В. С. Like most ancient drains and sewers, it was at first open, but was later enclosed. The original purpose of Rome's sewers was to drain off waste waters. For efficiency, the sewers were built along the lines of the natural streams. Of the approximately 200 aqueducts the Romans built throughout their Empire, at least nine were in Rome. Though they were able to deliver 85 million gallons of water per day, consumption averaged only 40 million. Like other ancient systems, the Romans' set-up had no main pipe leading from the reservoir to the town. Instead, the water flowed from the source partly along conduits which were often of considerable length, and partly over aqueducts to the water tower. The water tower interior was divided into four compartments — the tank itself and three subsidiary tanks. Two of the smaller tanks supplied the baths and the private houses of the rich. The third tank supplied the public fountains, where the majority of the people drew their water.

Lead or clay pipes were used to conduct water to the houses. The lead pipes (4 1/4 inch in diameter), were made from sheet-lead, bent around a core. Walls were 1/4 inch thick.

The Romans, although they did not invent paved roads, advanced road building to a new height. The total length of the roads built by the Romans in Britain is estimated at over 47,000 miles. They were constructed to last forever and many are in use today; some have simply been resurfaced.

In the construction of their road network, the Romans aimed at the shortest route, regardless of obstacles. Rocks were cleared away, tunnels were dug through hills, and swamps were drained. At first the Romans built timber roads, then somewhat later, a timber road mounted on stakes, many having a covering of pavement.

Roman bridges, at first made of wood, were later built of stone. Typical Roman style was a semicircular arch and short span. The bridge builders' chief problem was to provide solid foundations.

Town building was based on camp tradition, and some towns arose out of army camps. The typical Roman city had a rectangular plan and resembled a Roman military camp with two main streets—the cardo (north-south) and the decumanus (east-west)—a grid of smaller streets dividing the town into blocks, and a wall circuit with gates. A typical town built this way was Manchester, England.

The Colosseum in Rome (70-82) is best known for its multilevel system of vaults made of concrete. It is called the Colosseum for a colossal statue of Nero that once stood nearby, but its real name is the Flavian Amphitheater. It was used for staged battles between lions and Christians, among other spectacles, and is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world.

Roman theaters first appeared in the late Republic. They were semicircular in plan and consisted of a tall stage building abutting a semicircular orchestra and tiered seating area (caved). Unlike Greek theaters, which were situated on natural slopes, Roman theaters were supported by their own framework of piers and vaults and thus could be constructed in the hearts of cities.

 

The Colosseum in Rome (70-82) is best known for its multilevel system of vaults made of concrete. It is called the Colosseum for a colossal statue of Nero that once stood nearby, but its real name is the Flavian Amphitheater. It was used for staged battles between lions and Christians, among other spectacles, and is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world.

Fusion of Roman and North European traditions was reflected in many ways. Buildings combined the Roman arch and the steep peaked roof of Northern Europe. Roman traditions were continued in an architectural form known as Romanesque.

London bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches, its piers resting on broad foundations designed to withstand the Thames' current.

The first significant advance over Roman methods, however, was the invention of the ribbed vault. The ribs were built independently of the wall and supported the stone-vault web.

London bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches, its piers resting on broad foundations designed to withstand the Thames' current.

 

The use of pointed arches was another advance upon Roman methods, yet the medieval bridge was not as great an engineering achievement as was the cathedral. Providing for only one-way traffic, the typical bridge was narrow. It was not adapted to heavy vehicles.

New vocabulary:

Subdivision — подразделение                                                                 excavation - земляные работы

embankment - дамба, набережная                                                         aqueduct – акведук

pipeline – трубопровод                                                                           reclamation - осушка, мелиорация

drain -дренажная труба                                                                          sewer – коллектор

waste water - сточная вода                                                                      interior – внутренний

lead – свинец                                                                                               clay – глина

regardless of - не обращая внимания на                                               obstacle - помеха, преграда

swamp – болото                                                                                         built timber - строительный материал

pavement – тротуар                                                                                 semi- - полу-

arch - арка, свод                                                                                                    span – пролет

fusion – слияние                                                                                     rib – выступ

ribbed vault - веерный свод

1. Translate the words into Russian:

Civil engineering                                            _________________________

purpose                                                         _________________________

subdivision of engineering                             _________________________

civil                                                                _________________________

mechanical                                                     __________________________

electrical                                                        __________________________

excavation and embankment                         __________________________

railways                                                         __________________________

bridges                                                           __________________________

docks                                                             __________________________

harbour                                                          __________________________

reservoirs                                                       __________________________

canals                                                                      __________________________

aqueduct                                                        __________________________

pipeline                                                          __________________________

reclamation of land                                   __________________________

drain                                                              __________________________

sewers                                                            __________________________

enclose                                                           __________________________

natural streams                                              __________________________

consumption                                                  __________________________

2. Find the English equivalents:

Дорожная сеть                                    _______________________________

строительный лес                                _______________________________

тротуар                                               _______________________________

скала                                                    _______________________________

убирать прочь                                    _______________________________

арка                                                     _______________________________

пролет                                                 _______________________________

лагерная традиция                              _______________________________

веерный свод                                       _______________________________

свинцовые или глиняные трубы        _______________________________

доставлять воду к                          _______________________________

не обращая внимания                         _______________________________

средневековый мост                            _______________________________

собор                                                            _______________________________

тяжелый транспорт                             _______________________________

деление (отсек)                               _______________________________

3. Practise the pronunciation of the words and word-combinations:

Specialization, excavation, embankment, aqueduct, the Cloaca Maxima, ancient, approximately, reservoir, sewer, subsidiary.