Complete the sentences with the necessary prepositions

1. Like most ancient drains and sewers, it was__________________________first open, but was later enclosed.

2. The water tower interior was divided ___________________________ four compartments.

3. In the construction of their road network, the Romans aimed _____________the hortest route, regardless__________________obstacles.

4. Town building was based__________________camp tradition.

5. Fusion___________________Roman and North European traditions was reflected _____________________many ways.

6. London bridge consisted____________________nineteen irregular pointed arches.

5. Answer the questions:

1. What does the term "civil engineering" mean?

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2. What has led to subdivision of engineering?

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3. What does the civil engineering divide?

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4. When did civil engineering develop?

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5. What was the original purpose of Rome's sewers?

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6. How much gallons of water were nine aqueducts able to deliver per day?

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7. What was the building of water tower?

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8. What pipes were used to conduct water to the houses?

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9. What was the total length of Romans' roads?

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10. What was the chief problem of bridges?

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11. Town buildings. What were they based?

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12. What have you known about London Bridge?

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13. What was the medieval bridge? Why?

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14. Was it adapted to heavy vehicles?

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6. Continue the following sentences:

1. «Civil engineering» is ______________________________________________

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2. The Cloaca Maxima was ____________________________________________

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3. The Roman roads were _____________________________________________

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4. Roman bridges were _______________________________________________

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5. Town building were ________________________________________________

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Give your opinion on the topic

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8. Give a short summary of the text.

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Give annotation of the text

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ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

The natural products, such as timber, brick, clay and stone, largely determine the character of Egyptian Architecture. Stone, including limestone, sandstone and alabaster, as well as the harder granite or porphyry, was the material chiefly employed, not only for constructive and decorative work, but also for vases and even for personal ornaments, as the country was poor in metal and there was little building timber.

The gigantic scale which distinguishes Egyptian architecture was made possible not only by the materials, but also by the methods of quarrying, transporting and raising enormous blocks of stone into position.

Pyramid of Khafre at Giza The pyramids at Giza in Egypt are among the most famous pieces of architecture in the world. The Pyramid of Khafre was built as the final resting place of the pharaoh Khafre in about 2530 BC. This pyramid almost 136 m (446 ft) high, was built without the use of cranes, pulleys, or lifting tackle and archaeologists are still not certain how this was accomplished. The original limestone casing can still be seen at the pyramid.

 

The architecture of Egypt is characterized by massive walls, close-spaced columns carrying stone lintels which, in their turn, support the flat roof.

The Pyramids, which are amongst the oldest monuments, were religious in origin and reveal not only the religious faith but also the social and industrial conditions in those far-off days; for such massive buildings would have not been possible without a despotic government and the forced labour of a vast population of slaves and captives.

The architecture of Western Asia also reflects national characteristics. Here, again, the colossal nature of building undertakings points to the social conditions that prevailed.

European architecture up to this period may be divided into three main types, differentiated by important constructive principles.

The Greek or trabeated style, consisting of column and beam.

The Roman or composite style combining column and semicircular arch and vault.

The Gothic or arcuated style is that, in which the pointed arch prevailed.

Greek Architecture. The chief mineral wealth of Greece was in her marble - - the most beautiful and monumental of all building materials. The Greeks attached so much importance to the quality of fine-grained marble for producing exact outlines and smooth surfaces, that they even coated coarse-grained limestone with a layer of marble «stucco» in order to secure this effect, which is the great characteristic of their architecture. The architecture of Greece reflects each stage of Greek history with remarkable accuracy and her architecture has influenced all styles down to our own day.

The Greek style consists of column and beam.

Greek Columns. There are three standard types of columns in Greek classical architecture. The oldest is Doric, which is wider than the other two, has no base, and is topped by a simple abacus with an echinus directly underneath it. The Ionic column has a base and a capital made of scroll-shaped volutes directly beneath the abacus. The most elaborate column is the Corinthian. It has the most complex base and the capital is made of layers of carved acanthus leaves ending in volutes. All three columns have fluted shafts.

 

Roman Architecture. In addition to marble the Romans could quarry terracotta, stone, and brick, all of which they used even for important buildings.

In the neighbour hood of Rome there was travertine, a hard limestone from Tivoli, tufa, a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are mainly composed, besides excellent sand and gravel. The building material, however, which led to great structural innovations, was concrete formed of pozzolana, a clean sandy earth which has a peculiar property when mixed with lime. It was exceedingly hard and cohesive concrete. Not only domes and vaults but also walls were frequently formed of this concrete, and they were faced with brick, stone, alabaster, porphyry and other marbles.

Arches and Vaults This series of drawings shows the structure of some basic arches and vaults. The construction of an arch (A) requires a temporary wooden structure to hold the voussoirs (wedge-shaped bricks or stones) until the keystone, or central voussoir, can be put into place. Arches are connected with the aid of an impost (B), a piece of molding located where the arch begins. Imposts are also used at the point between an arch and the capital of a column. Arches can be connected (C) to form a barrel, or tunnel vault. A series of barrel vaults (D) is used to create an arched ceiling or roof. A variation on this is the cross, or groin, vault (E), in which two barrel vaults intersect.

 

 

The architecture of Rome was largely influenced by the Etruscan arch so that a complex type resulted from blending the Greek column and entablature as decorative facings to piers with semicircular arches but they still used columns constructively. By the use of the newly invented concrete and by the employment of the arch, vault and dome the architecture of Rome became the foundation of European architecture.

Gothic Architecture. The establishment of Christianity as the state religion resulted in the construction in Rome of over thirty churches. It gave an impetus to the marvellous architectural developments of the Medieval period which were in their turn developed from Romanesque architecture, and to which the name of Gothic has since been given. Gothic architecture of the thirteenth century is mainly distinguished from Romanesque architecture by the introduction and general use of the pointed arch and by employing small stones held together with thick mortar joints.

Notre Dame Cathedral Notre Dame Cathedral, in Paris, was begun in 1163 and completed for the most part in 1250. It is one of the best-known Gothic cathedrals in the world. The view here is of the south side, overlooking the Seine River, displaying the dramatic flying buttresses and one of the famous rose windows. Although Notre Dame is considered a Gothic structure, it incorporates remnants of the earlier Romanesque style.

New vocabulary:

Largely - зд. в значительной степени                                    to determine the character определять характер

limestone – известняк                                                                sandstone – песчаник

alabaster – алебастр                                                                 porphyry – порфир

personal ornaments - личных украшений                              the gigantic scale - гигантский масштаб

to distinguish – отличать                                                        quarry -разработка карьеров

in their turn - в их очередь                                                        to be in origin - быть по происхождению

to reveal the religious faith - показывать религиозную веру the forced labour - принудительный труд

to reflect – отражать                                                               undertaking – предприятие

prevail – преобладать                                                              trabeated style – стиль характеризующийся

beam – балка                                                                                антаблементом (фриз и карниз)

arcuated style - арочный стиль                                               marble – мрамор

to attach – прилагать                                                                terracotta – терракота

travertine – известковый туф                                                 pozzolana – пуццолана

a peculiar property - специфическое свойство                  lime – известь

exceedingly – чрезвычайно                                                       cohesive - способный к сцеплению

concrete – бетон                                                                         an impetus – стимул

marvelous – изумительным                                                      the Medieval – средневековье

mortar - известняковый раствор

1. Translate the words into Russian:

Timber

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brick

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clay and stone

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granite

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constructive and decorative work

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to be poor in metal

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building timber

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to raise enormous blocks of stone into position

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slaves and captives

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to point to the social conditions

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differentiated by important constructive principles

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semicircular arch and vault

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the quality of fine-grained marble for producing exact outlines and smooth surfaces

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«stucco»

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remarkable accuracy

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the neighbourhood

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great structural innovations

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establishment of Christianity

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2. Translate the words, word combinations and sentences into English:

1. Для архитектуры Египта характерны массивные стены, близко расположенные друг к другу колонны, несущие каменные перемычки которые, в свою очередь, поддерживают плоскую крышу;

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2. в те отдаленные дни;

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3. европейская архитектура до этого периода может быть разделена на три главных типа;

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4. наиболее красиво и монументально из всех строительных материалов;

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5. важности к качеству мелкозернистого мрамора для создания точных основ и гладких поверхностей;

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6. архитектура Греции отражает каждую стадию Греческой истории с замечательной точностью, а ее архитектура повлияла на все стили до наших дней.

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