Complete the following sentences, choosing from the words given below

1. The structural design of a building ________________greatly on the nature of the soil and underlying geologic conditions and modification by man of either of these factors.

2. First of all the scientists _________________ whether a proposed building can be supported adequately and what would be the most effective and economical method of support.

3. The most common types of foundation systems ________________ shallow and deep foundation systems.

4. Shallow foundation systems _________________several feet below the bottom of the building.

5. Deep foundations ___________________ several dozen feet below the building.

6. The foundation ___________________concrete slabs, which ______________ under each structural column and a continuous slab under load-bearing walls.

7. Mat foundations _____________________when the soil is so weak that individual footings ___________________more than half the building area.

8. The caisson foundations ___________________the building loads at their lower ends, which are often bell-shaped.

9. Piles ___________________________of timber, concrete, or steel.

(to determine, to cover, to be characterized by, to make, to locate, to depend, to be, to consist of, to extend, to use, to carry)

5. Continue the following sentences:

1. The structural design of a building ____________________________________

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2. Ground conditions are ______________________________________________

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3. Foundation is _____________________________________________________

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4. Shallow foundation ________________________________________________

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5. Deep foundation___________________________________________________

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6.The reinforced-concrete spread footing _________________________________

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7. Mat foundation ___________________________________________________

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8. Piles are _________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Caisson foundation is ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Give your opinion on the topic

7. Give a short summary of the text.

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Give annotation of the text

STRUCTURE

The basic elements of any ordinary structure are the floors and roof (including horizontal supporting members), columns and walls (vertical members), and bracing (diagonal members) or rigid connections used to give the structure stability.

A simple single-story structure might consist of a reinforced-concrete slab laid directly on the ground, exterior masonry walls supported by the slab and a roof. Spaced columns supported by the slab or by individual spread footings may be used, however; in that case the exterior walls can be supported by or hung between the columns. Each structural material has a particular weight-to-strength ratio, cost, and durability. They are usually made of timber or steel, but reinforced concrete may be used. For tall buildings, the use of load-bearing walls with horizontal framing members has declined steadily; nonload-bearing curtain walls are used most frequently.

For structures up to 40 stories high, reinforced concrete, steel, or composite-reinforced concrete and steel can be used in a variety of ways. The basic elements of the steel skeleton frame are vertical columns, horizontal girders spanning the longer distance between columns, and beams spanning shorter distances. Lateral stability is provided by connecting the beams, columns, and girders; by the support given the structure by the floors and interior walls; and by diagonal bracing or rigid connections between columns, girders, and beams.

The curtain wall, the most common type of nonload-bearing wall, may be assembled either on or off the site. It consists of an exterior skin backed with insulation; a vapor barrier; sound-deadening materials; and an interior skin that may be part of the curtain wall or may be attached separately. The exterior skin may be made of metal (stainless steel, aluminum, bronze), masonry (concrete, brick, tile), or glass. Limestone, marble, granite, and precast concrete panels are also used for facades. New grasslike and ruglike materials made of plastic enable recreation areas to be built on top of roofs at little expense.

Traditional methods of partitioning a building interior include the use of masonry walls 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) thick made of concrete, gypsum, or pumice block, painted or plastered; or wood or metal frames covered with lath over which plaster is spread. Plasterboard and wallboard are increasingly used. Lightweight materials usually mean an increase in transmitted sound and a loss of privacy. Nevertheless, the trend is toward lighter partitions and increased use of sound-absorbing materials. In many buildings, the only walls still made of masonry are fire walls, which enclose elevator shafts, stairs, and main corridors.

Perhaps the greatest improvements in building construction have been in heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and sound control. In most large buildings complete, year-round air conditioning is now standard. Some areas in a building may need to be cooled even in winter, depending on the distance from exterior walls and the heat generated by lighting, electrical equipment, or human occupancy. The level and quality of lighting have improved greatly.

The growing use of power, telephone, and facsimile transmission equipment and of closed circuit television, intercommunication, and security and alarm systems has increased the amount of wiring that must be installed in buildings. Main cables run vertically in open shafts, with branches at each floor running through conduits located either in the hung ceiling space or embedded in the floor slab itself.

The electrical power required in buildings has increased with the number and complexity of environmental systems in operation. Because a power outage cannot be tolerated, emergency power generators are installed in an increasing number of buildings. Some buildings, particularly in remote locations, are equipped with their own primary electrical generating systems. Diesel and gas-turbine generators are used. The heat generated by these engines, instead of being wasted, is sometimes utilized for other purposes within the building.

Elevators, especially high-speed, automatically controlled, cable-operated elevators, are the major form of vertical transportation in high-rise structures. Low-rise buildings and the lower floors of commercial buildings may also have escalators. For fire protection, it is necessary to provide at least two means of egress from every major space in a building. Therefore, in addition to elevators and escalators, all buildings, even the tallest, have two enclosed and protected stairways for their entire height.

Buildings must have a piped-in water supply for a variety of purposes: drinking, washing, cooking, waste disposal, internal fire fighting, and service to air-conditioning systems or boilers.

Disposal of wet and dry wastes in buildings is accomplished by a variety of devices, such as incinerators, shredders, and garbage compactors. There are also devices that assist waste-pickup and disposal systems. The usual method of carrying away waterborne waste is through piping connected to the sewer system outside the building. New technology is aimed at recycling water to reduce waste and pollution.

New vocabulary:

Bracing – крепление rigid connection - жесткое соединение

exterior masonry wall - внешние каменные стены ratio – отношение

cost – цена durability – прочность

load-bearing wall - несущая стена to decline - уменьшаться, отклоняться

nonload-bearing curtain wall - ненесущая стена girder - балка, брус, перекладина

span – перекрывать curtain wall - завесная стена

to assemble - собирать, монтировать insulation - изоляция, изоляционный материал

vapor barrier - паровой барьер stainless steel - нержавеющая сталь