2020-10-10
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With the growing use of aircraft during World War I came the need to have an international agreement about states’ control of airspace. In the Paris Convention, 1919, the international community established each state’s exclusive control over its airspace. It meant control only above the territory of the state itself and above its territorial waters. But no control over high seas. Airspace above the high seas remained free under the Paris Convention.
With the rise in international air traffic after World War II, it became necessary to establish some general principles to govern international air travel. At this time “five freedoms of the air” appeared:
a) overflight - the privilege to fly across a state’s territory without landing;
b) non-traffic landing - the privilege to land for non-traffic purposes;
c) putting down traffic - the privilege to put down passengers, mail and cargo taken on in the territory of the state whose nationality the aircraft possesses.
d) picking up traffic - the privilege to take on passengers, mail and cargo destined for the territory of the state whose nationality the aircraft possesses.
e) international traffic - the privilege to take on or put down passengers, mail and cargo, destined for or coming from any contracting state.
The most important agreement was the Chicago Convention (Convention on International Civil Aviation), 1944.
The Chicago Convention created the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Air Service Transit Agreement.
The Chicago Convention extended all five freedoms of the air to non-scheduled international air service.
a) Aircraft must follow prescribed safe routes.
b) States have the right to refuse intra-state traffic.
c) The Chicago Convention governs only civil aircraft and doesn’t apply to state aircraft including military aircraft.
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d) Discrimination based on nationality was prohibited.
Hijacking is the use of force or threat of the use of force to take control over an aircraft. Sabotage is the action which jeopardizes the safety of the aircraft. The international community established conventions to govern both of these offences. The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (the Hague Convention) governs hijacking. The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against Safety of Civil Aviation (the Montreal Convention) governs sabotage.
Many of the articles of these two conventions are identical. Under both conventions the states must extradite or prosecute the offender. The Hague and Montreal Conventions (and International Conventions for the Taking Hostages) recognize hijacking and sabotage as universal crimes.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why and when did the need to have an international agreement about states’ control of airspace come?
2. What is exclusive control over a state’s airspace under the Paris Convention, 1919?
3. What are five freedoms of the air?
4. What did the Chicago Convention do?
5. What is non-scheduled international air service?
6. What is hijacking?
7. What is sabotage?
8. What conventions did the international community establish to govern these offences?
9. What articles of these conventions are identical?
Task 22. Translate the following sentences into English using the words and word combinations from the text above:
в связи с ростом использования летательных средств; контроль над воздушным пространством; международное сообщество; установить контроль; остаться свободным; воздушное передвижение; установить общие принципы; свободы передвижения в воздушном пространстве (свободы воздуха); перелет; посадка; принятие на борт и высадка; следовать маршрутом; гражданские летательные средства; запрещать дискриминацию; угон воздушного судна; использование силы; угроза использования силы; захватить судно; диверсия; подвергать опасности; выдавать преступника; брать заложников.
Task 23. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:
| 1. With the growing use of aircraft | a) established control |
| 2. control | b) remained free |
| 3. Airspace above the high seas | c) to establish some general principles |
| 4. It became necessary | d) above the territory of the state |
| 5. international community | e) came the need to have an international agreement |
| 6. to fly across a state’s territory | f) passengers, mail and cargo |
| 7. to take on and put down | g) without landing |
| 8. The Chicago Convention | h) extended all five freedoms of the air |
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Debate: OUTERSPACE
Read the information concerning the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. Comment on Kant’s words and on the articles of the Treaty.
Immanuel Kant in his essay Toward Perpetual Peace claimed that the expansion of hospitality with regard to “use of the right to the earth’s surface which belongs to the human race in common” would “finally bring the human race ever closer to a cosmopolitan constitution”
The concept of Common Heritage of Mankind, however, was first mentioned in the preamble to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and specifically enuciated as an obligation under international law in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. Some initial provisions of that treaty state:
“The exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial
bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind.
Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies shall be free for exploration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind, on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law, and there shall be free access to all areas of celestial bodies. There shall be freedom of scientific investigation in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, and States shall facilitate and encourage international cooperation in such investigation” (United Nations, Outer Space Treaty Article 1).
Article 2 of the Outer Space Treaty says:
“Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means”.
Article 4 of the Outer Space Treaty says:
“States parties to the Treaty undertake not to place in orbit around the earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, install such weapons on celestial bodies, or station such weapons in outer space in any other manner. The moon and other celestial bodies shall be used by all States Parties to the Treaty exclusively for peaceful purposes. The establishment of military bases, installations and fortifications, the testing of any type of weapons and the conduct of military maneuvers on celestial bodies shall be forbidden. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. The use or any equipment or facility necessary for peaceful exploration of the moon and other celestial bodies shall also not be prohibited”.
Task 24. Translate the following jokes into English:
1. Два адвоката заходят в кафе, заказывают напитки и достают бутерброды.
- Извините, - говорит бармен, - но у нас нельзя есть свою еду.
Адвокаты переглядываются, пожимают плечами и меняются своими бутербродами.
2. В перерыве судебного заседания адвокат удрученно говорит своему подзащитному:
- Я исчерпал уже все доводы в вашу пользу. Не знаю, что я еще могу для вас сделать...
- А что, если вы возьмете вину на себя?
3. Рынок. Толкучка. Мужчина ловит вора за руку, когда тот вытаскивает ее из кармана брюк.
- Как тебе не стыдно по чужим карманам лазить?!
- Это как тебе не стыдно?! Такой взрослый дядя, а в кармане ни копейки денег...
Task 25. Review the texts and focus on the three you like best.
(a) Speak about one of your favourite texts explaining what exactly made you like it.
(b) Present brief summaries of the other two texts identifying the main information and its support.
Unit 3. COMPANY LAW
| Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice | ||
| company law – корпоративное право partnership – партнерство entity – организация business entity – коммерческая организация legal entity / legal body / legal person — юридическое лицо to sue sb – преследовать в судебном порядке | to enter into contracts – заключать контракты a board of directors – совет директоров limited liability – ограниченная ответственность shareholder – акционер share – акция | |
Task 1. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other references & source books on law. Pay special attention to the words and word combinations in bold type.
COMPANY LAW
Company law is the field of law regulating companies and other business organizations – corporations, partnerships and other associations which usually realize some form of economic or charitable activity.
The major types of business organizations are: sole proprietorship, partnership, limited liability company. A sole proprietorship, also known as the sole trader or simply a proprietorship, is a type of business organization that is owned and run by one individual and in which there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business. Capital needed is contributed by sole proprietor, who has unlimited personal liability for the obligations of the business.
Sole proprietors may incorporate themselves and limit their liability in order to carry on a business. All different forms of companies depend on the particular law of the particular country in which they reside.
The most outstanding kind of business organization is, usually referred to as a company (or a corporation in the US).
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Company is a business association formed for the purpose of some business and benefit, which has the character of a legal person and is legally distinct from its members. It has legal personality and can hold property, sue and be sued in its own name as if it were a natural person.
A company may be a public limited company (plc) and a private limited company (Ltd).
The shares of Public limited companies may be transferred freely among and owned by members of the public. The minimum share capital of £50000 is raised through issuance of shares to the public or existing members. Personal liability is generally limited to shareholder's contributions. Company is managed by the board of directors and shareholders have no power to participate in management.
Private limited company is a type of company that offers limited liability, or legal protection for its shareholders but that places certain restrictions on its ownership. These restrictions are defined in the company's bylaws or regulations and are meant to prevent any hostile takeover attempt. The major ownership restrictions are: shareholders cannot sell or transfer their shares without offering them first to other shareholders for purchase, shareholders cannot offer their shares to the general public over a stock exchange, and the number of shareholders cannot exceed a fixed figure (commonly 50). The shareholders manage the corporation jointly. The capital is raised by the issuance of shares to members of through guarantee.
By contrast, a partnership is an association of two or more persons carrying on business in common with a view to profit. It is not considered to be a legal entity. Each partner is liable to the full extend of his property for the whole debts of the partnership firm if the firm is unable to meet them. The sharing of profits and losses is usually governed by the articles of partnership or partnership agreements. In the absence of express or implied agreement, partners contribute equally towards losses sustained by the firm. Where the profits are not shared equally, the losses are borne in the same proportion as the profits are shared, regardless of whether one partner has put up more capital than others.
Partnerships may enjoy special tax benefits and are often favored over corporations in policy of taxation, as dividend taxes only occur on profits before they are distributed to the partners. However, owners of a partnership may be exposed to greater personal liability than they would as shareholders of a corporation.
Partnerships are usually formed by lawyers, accountants, auditors and other professionals.
The Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which introduced the concept of the limited liability partnership (LLP) into English law. It created an LLP as a body with legal personality separate from its members (unlike a normal partnership), which is governed under a hybrid system of law partially from company law and partially from partnership law.
Unlike normal partnerships the liability of members of LLP on winding up is limited to the amount of capital they contributed to the LLP.
In an LLP, one partner is not responsible or liable for another partner's misconduct or negligence. This is an important difference from the traditional unlimited partnership under the Partnership Act 1890, in which each partner has joint liability. In an LLP, some partners have a form of limited liability similar to that of the shareholders of a corporation. In some countries, an LLP must also have at least one "general partner" with unlimited liability. Unlike corporate shareholders, the partners have the right to manage the business directly. In contrast, corporate shareholders have to elect a board of directors. The board organizes itself and hires corporate officers who then have as "corporate" individuals the legal responsibility to manage the company in the company's best interest. An LLP also contains a different level of tax liability from that of a corporation.
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Answer the following questions:
1. What does company law regulate?
2. What are the major types of business organizations?
3. What is sole proprietorship? What are the special features of this type of business?
4. How can you define a company?
5. What does legal personality mean?
6. What types of companies are there?
7. What are the differences between a public limited company and a private limited company?
8. How can you define a partnership?
Task 2. Find equivalents of the following words and word combinations in the text above:
| реализовывать некоторые формы экономической и благотворительной деятельности, партнерства и др. ассоциации индивидуальное предпринимательство неограниченная личная ответственность по обязательствам бизнеса зарегистрировать компанию и ограничить ответственность частная компания с ограниченной ответственностью юридическое лицо статус юридического лица преследовать и быть преследуемым в судебном порядке вклад акционеров совет директоров выпуск акций акции могут свободно передаваться и быть в собственности у представителей общественности или существующих членов личная ответственность участвовать в управлении личная ответственность ограничивается взносом акционера не иметь личной ответственности по обязательствам бизнеса | осуществлять деловую активность с целью получения выгоды отвечать в полном объеме собственностью по долгам распределение прибыли и потерь устав партнерства потери, претерпеваемые фирмой пользоваться налоговыми выгодами политика налогообложения могут быть подвержены большей личной ответственности партнерство с ограниченной ответственностью ответственность членов партнерства на момент ликвидации не нести ответственность за неправомерное поведение или небрежность совместная ответственность главный партнер с неограниченной ответственностью управлять бизнесом напрямую |
Task 3. Find the appropriate definitions of the terms listed in the left column of the table using the word combinations from the right column:
| 1) liability | (a) one of the equal parts into which a company's capital is divided, entitling the holder to a proportion of the profits: | |
| 2) limited liability company | (b) the state of being legally responsible for something | |
| 3) share | (c) allows one or more natural persons to act as a single entity (a composite person) for legal purposes. In many jurisdictions, legal personality allows such composite to be considered under law separately from its individual members or shareholders. They may sue and be sued, enter contracts, incur debt, and own property. | |
| 4) legal personality | (d) an association of two or more persons or entities that conduct a business for profit as co-owners | |
| 5) board of directors | (e) an unincorporated company formed under applicable state statute whose members cannot be held liable for the acts, debts, or obligations of the company and that may elect to be taxed as a partnership | |
| 6) partnership | (f) a group of individuals elected by the shareholders of a corporation to manage the corporation's business and appoint its officers |
TASK 4. Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table.
| (1) civil liability | (a) совместная ответственность |
| (2) joint liability | (b) гражданская ответственность |
| (3) long-term liability | (c) обязательство уплатить убытки |
| (4) liability to pay damages | (d) долгосрочное обязательство |
| (5) liability for negligence | (e) избежать ответственности |
| (6) escape liability | (f) ответственность за небрежность |
Task 5. Study the text below and answer the questions.
Company Law
Company law is a branch of law which deals with the creation and regulation of business entities. There are two most popular forms of business entities – companies and partnerships.
A company is a group of people which is treated as a legal person. It can own property, enter into contracts, sue others and be sued. A company has limited liability of the members for its debts.
A partnership in contrast to a company is not a legal person and can’t own property in its own name.
A company has shareholders (those who invest money in it and get shares in return), a board of directors (people who manage the affairs of the company and creditors (those to whom the company owes money).
Company law regulates relations between companies and their shareholders, creditors and third parties.
A company can be created by individuals, specialized agents, attorneys or accountants. Today, the majority of companies formed in the UK and the USA are formed electronically.
For incorporation it is necessary to file constitutional documents and some special forms. Constitutional documents state the principal object of the company and regulate internal management and administrative affairs, such as rights and obligations of shareholders and directors, conduct of meetings and corporate contracts.
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in return – взамен
affairs of the company – дела компании
to owe – быть должным
incorporation – регистрация, оформление
to file – регистрировать документы
principal object – основная цель
internal - внутренний
obligations – обязательства
conduct of meetings – проведение собраний
Answer the following questions:
1. What is company law?
2. What are the most popular forms of business entities?
3. What is a company?
4. What is a partnership?
5. What are shareholders?
6. What is a board of directors?
7. What are creditors?
8. What is the way to create a company?
9. What is it necessary for incorporation?
10. What do constitutional documents state?
Task 6. Complete the sentences below using the verbs in the box.
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(1) Company law is a branch of law which ………….with the creation and regulation of business entities. (2) The two most popular forms of business entities are......…........
(3) A company is a group of people which is considered as a …............... (4) A company can ………….. property, ………… contracts, …………… others and be sued. (5) A company has …………… of the members for its debts. (6) A shareholder …………… money by buying shares in a company. (7) The board of directors ……………the affairs of the company. (8) A creditor of a company is a person or entity to whom the company ……… a debt.
Task 7. Find equivalents of the following words and word combinations in the text above:
отрасль права; коммерческая организация; партнерство; административные дела, права и обязанности акционеров, проведение митингов, регулировать отношения, третья сторона, совет директоров, быть должным деньги, владеть собственностью, в отличии от, юридическое лицо, регулирование хозяйственных организаций, ограниченная ответственность, преследовать в судебном порядке, долги, вкладывать деньги, основная цель, внутренний менеджмент.
Корпоративное право регулирует вопросы создания и деятельности коммерческих организаций, отношения между компаниями и их акционерами, кредиторами и третьими лицами.
Существует две основные формы коммерческих организаций: компании и партнерства. Компания – это юридическое лицо. Она может владеть собственностью, заключать контракты. Члены компании имеют ограниченную ответственность по долгам компании.
Партнерство – не юридическое лицо и не может владеть собственностью.
Акционеры компании вкладывают в компанию деньги и получают взамен акции. Совет директоров управляет делами компании.
Если кто-то хочет создать компанию, он должен зарегистрировать конституционные документы, которые указывают цели компании, ее внутреннее управление и т.д. Компания может быть создана частными лицами, агентами и т.д.
Task 8. Study the text below and comment upon the main principles of company law.
