Unit 2. Genetically modified food / Генетически модифицированный продукт

I. Master words and word combinations:

alfalfa [æl'fælfə] люцерна

canola [kə'nəulə] канола (разновидность рапса, выведенная в Канаде (Can(ada) + o(il) + l(ow) + a(cid))

chymosin химозин, сычужный фермент

cottonseed oil хлопковое масло

crops зерновые (о культурах)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) ДНК, дезоксирибонуклеиновая кислота

heterotic vigor = hybrid vigor гибридная сила, гибридная мощность, гетерозис

FDA (Food and Drug Administration) Управление по контролю за продуктами и лекарствами (США)

feed crop кормовая культура

fungi ['fʌnʤaɪ] от fungus гриб; плесень; грибок

genetically modified food генетически модифицированный, изменённый продукт (питания)

intolerance [ɪn'tɔl(ə)r(ə)n(t)s] непереносимость

lentiviruses лентивирусы

mutagenesis мутагенез, мутационный процесс

OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Организация экономического сотрудничества и развития, ОЭСР

processed food бакалея, бакалейные товары

selective breeding селекция

shelf-life срок хранения

squash [skwɔʃ] 1) тыква; 2) любое растение из рода тыквенных: а) кабачок;б) цуккини; в) патиссон

subsidiary [səb'sɪdɪ(ə)rɪ] дочерняя компания

starch [stɑːʧ] крахмал

traceability прослеживаемость; обнаруживаемость; возможность контроля

transgenesis трансгеноз, перенос генов

II. Read and translate the following text into Russian:

Genetically modified foods (GM foods or GMO foods) are foods derived from genetically modified organisms, (GMOs). Genetically modified organisms have had specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering techniques. These techniques are much more precise than mutagenesis (mutation breeding) where an organism is exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which humans modify food organisms include selective breeding; plant breeding, and animal breeding, and somaclonal variation.

Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. In the process of cisgenesis, genes are artificially transferred between organisms that could be conventionally bred. In the process of transgenesis, genes from a different species are inserted, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require transferring genes as part of an attenuated virus genome or physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host using a microsyringe, or as a coating on gold nanoparticles fired from a gene gun. However, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, and the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells.

GM foods were first put on the market in the early 1990s. The first commercially grown genetically modified whole food crop was a tomato (called FlavrSavr), which was modified to ripen without softening, by Calgene, later a subsidiary of Monsanto. Calgene took the initiative to obtain FDA approval for its release in 1994 without any special labeling, although legally no such approval was required. It was welcomed by consumers who purchased the fruit at a substantial premium over the price of regular tomatoes. However, production problems and competition from a conventionally bred, longer shelf-life variety prevented the product from becoming profitable. A tomato produced using similar technology to the Flavr Savr was used by Zeneca to produce tomato paste which was sold in Europe during the summer of 1996. The labeling and pricing were designed as a marketing experiment, which proved, at the time, that European consumers would accept genetically engineered foods. Currently, there are a number of food species in which a genetically modified version exists (soybeans, corn, cotton (cottonseed oil), alfalfa, hawaiian papaya, tomatoes, canola, sugar cane, sugar beet, rice, squash (zucchini), sweet peppers).

In addition, various genetically engineered micro-organisms are routinely used as sources of enzymes for the manufacture of a variety of processed foods. These include alpha-amylase from bacteria, which converts starch to simple sugars, chymosin from bacteria or fungi that clots milk protein for cheese making, and pectinesterase from fungi which improves fruit juice clarity.

Between 1997 and 2009, the total surface area of land cultivated with GMOs had increased from 17,000 km2 to 1,340,000 km2. Although most GM crops are grown in North America, in recent years there has been rapid growth in the area sown in developing countries. In 2009, countries that grew 95% of the global transgenic crops were the United States (46%), Brazil (16%), Argentina (15%), India (6%), Canada (6%), China (3%), Paraguay (2%) and South Africa (2%).

The United States and Canada do not require labeling of genetically modified foods. However in certain other regions, such as the European Union, Japan, Malaysia and Australia, governments have required labeling so consumers can exercise choice between foods that have genetically modified, conventional or organic origins. This requires a labeling system as well as the reliable separation of GM and non-GM organisms at production level and throughout the whole processing chain.

For traceability, the OECD has introduced a “unique identifier” which is given to any GMO when it is approved. This unique identifier must be forwarded at every stage of processing. Many countries have established labeling regulations and guidelines on coexistence and traceability. Research projects such as Co-Extra, SIGMEA and Transcontainer are aimed at investigating improved methods for ensuring coexistence and providing stakeholders the tools required for the implementation of coexistence and traceability.

Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. These tests can be based on screening genetic elements (like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar) or event-specific markers for the official GMOs (like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73). The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs, combining different approaches (screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers).

The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false negative results. For example, a test for CaMV is used to avoid a false positive in the event of a virus contaminated sample. A 5-digit Price Look-Up code beginning with the digit 8 indicates genetically modified food; however the absence of the digit does not necessarily indicate the food is not genetically modified.

While it is evident that there is a food supply issue, the question is whether GM can solve world hunger problems, or even if that would be the best way to address the issue. Several scientists argue that in order to meet the demand for food in the developing world, a second Green Revolution with increased use of GM crops is needed. Others argue that there is more than enough food in the world and that the hunger crisis is caused by problems in food distribution and politics, not production. Recently some critics and environmentalists have changed their minds on the issue with respect to the need for additional food supplies. Further, it has been widely noted that there are those who consider over-population the real issue here, and that food production is adequate for any reasonable population size.

On the other hand, many believe that GM food has not been a success and that we should devote our efforts and money into another solution. “We need biodiversity intensification that works with nature’s nutrient and water cycles, not against them,” says Vandana Shiva, the founder of Navdanya, the movement of 500,000 seed keepers and organic farmers in India, argues that GMFs have not increased yields. Recently, Doug Gurian-Sherman, a member of the Union of Concerned Scientists, a nonprofit science advocacy group, published a report called “Failure to Yield”, in which he stated that in a nearly 20 year record, genetically engineered crops have not increased yields substantially of food and livestock feed crops in the United States.

Traditionally, farmers in all nations saved their own seed from year to year. It should be noted that this does not apply in more agriculturally developed countries for some crops. Corn is one example where producers generally have not saved seed since the early 1900s with the advent of hybrid corn through selective breeding. Seed producers grow the seed corn instead due to the effort needed to produce hybrids. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose the beneficial traits of the parents, resulting in the loss of hybrid vigor. In these cases, the use of hybrid plants has been the primary reason for growers not saving seed, not intellectual property issues, and has been in practice well before genetically-modified seed was developed. However, the practice of not saving seed in non-hybrid crops, such as soybean, is mainly due to intellectual property regulations. Allowing to follow this practice with genetically modified seed would result in seed developers losing the ability to profit from their breeding work. Therefore, genetically-modified seed is subject to licensing by their developers in contracts that are written to prevent farmers from following this practice.

Future envisaged applications of GMOs are diverse and include drugs in food, bananas that produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such as Hepatitis B, metabolically engineered fish that mature more quickly, fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier, foods no longer containing properties associated with common intolerances, and plants that produce new plastics with unique properties. While their practicality or efficacy in commercial production has yet to be fully tested, the next decade may see exponential increases in GM product development as researchers gain increasing access to genomic resources that are applicable to organisms beyond the scope of individual projects. Safety testing of these products will also, at the same time, be necessary to ensure that the perceived benefits will indeed outweigh the perceived and hidden costs of development.

In the United States, the FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition reviews summaries of food safety data developed and voluntarily submitted by developers of engineered foods, in part on the basis of comparability to conventionally-produced foods. There are no specific tests required by FDA to determine safety. FDA does not approve the safety of engineered foods, but after its review, acknowledges that the developer of the food has asserted that it is safe.

A 2008 review published by the Royal Society of Medicine noted that GM foods have been eaten by millions of people worldwide for over 15 years, with no reports of ill effects. There have, however, been no epidemiological studies to determine whether engineered crops have caused any harm to the public. Without such studies, it is unlikely that harm, if it occurred, would be detected or attributed to engineered foods. Worldwide, there are a range of perspectives within non-governmental organizations on the safety of GM foods. For example, the US pro-GM pressure group AgBioWorld has argued that GM foods have been proven safe, while other pressure groups and consumer rights groups, such as the Organic Consumers Association, and Greenpeace claim the long term health risks which GM could pose, or the environmental risks associated with GM, have not yet been adequately investigated.

III. Answer the following questions:

1) What are GMO? 2) What is a GM organism? 3) What is called “mutagenesis”? 4) What other techniques are used to change food organisms? 5) When did GM foods appear in shops? 6) What products are used in for modification? 7) What are the negative factors of applying GMO? 8) What was the first commercially grown GM food? 9) What countries grow transgenic crops? 10) Is it possible to discover the contents of GMO in food? 11) Is it safe to eat GMO products?

IV. Use the following words and word combinations in the sentences of your own:

genetic engineering techniques, unique identifier, specific changes, plant breeding, stakeholder, beneficial traits, comparability, animal breeding, world hunger, cell membrane, to ripen, cisgenesis, labeling, yield, somaclonal variation, diverse, profitable, cheese making, nonprofit, intellectual property, coexistence, viable, food distribution, offspring, developer, applicable, hidden costs

V. Translate the following sentences into English using your active vocabulary:

1) Генети́чески модифици́рованный органи́зм (ГМО) — живой организм, генотип которого был искусственно изменён при помощи методов генной инженерии.2) Генетическая модификация отличается целенаправленным изменением генотипа организма в отличие от случайного, характерного для естественного и искусственного мутагенеза. 3) Основным видом генетической модификации в настоящее время является использование трансгенов для создания трансгенных организмов. 4) Разработка ГМО некоторыми учеными рассматривается как естественное развитие работ по селекции животных и растений. 5) Другие же, напротив, считают генную инженерию полным отходом от классической селекции, так как ГМО — это не продукт искусственного отбора, то есть постепенного выведения нового сорта (породы) организмов путем естественного размножения, а, фактически, искусственно синтезированный в лаборатории новый вид. 6) Во многих случаях использование трансгенных растений сильно повышает урожайность. 7) Есть мнение, что при нынешнем размере населения планеты только ГМО могут избавить мир от угрозы голода, так как при помощи генной модификации можно увеличивать урожайность и качество пищи. 8) Противники этого мнения считают, что при современном уровне агротехники и механизации сельскохозяйственного производства уже существующие сейчас, полученные классическим путем, сорта растений и породы животных способны сполна обеспечить население планеты высококачественным продовольствием. 9) Процесс синтеза генов в настоящее время разработан очень хорошо и даже в значительной степени автоматизирован. 10) Существуют специальные аппараты, снабжённые ЭВМ, в памяти которых закладывают программы синтеза различных нуклеотидных последовательностей. 11) Техника введения генов в бактерии была разработана после того, как Фредерик Гриффит открыл явление бактериальной трансформации. 12) Если модификации подвергаются одноклеточные организмы или культуры клеток многоклеточных, то на этом этапе начинается клонирование, то есть отбор тех организмов и их потомков (клонов), которые подверглись модификации. 13) Когда же поставлена задача получить многоклеточные организмы, то клетки с изменённым генотипом используют для вегетативного размножения растений или вводят в бластоцисты суррогатной матери, когда речь идёт о животных. 14) В результате рождаются детеныши с изменённым или неизменным генотипом, среди которых отбирают и скрещивают между собой только те, которые проявляют ожидаемые изменения. 15) С помощью ГМО исследуются закономерности развития некоторых заболеваний (болезнь Альцгеймера, рак), процессы старения и регенерации, изучается функционирование нервной системы, решается ряд других актуальных проблем биологии и медицины.16)Ведутся работы по созданию генетически модифицированных растений, продуцирующих компоненты вакцин и лекарств против опасных инфекций (чумы, ВИЧ). 17) Генная инженерия используется для создания новых сортов растений, устойчивых к неблагоприятным условиям среды и вредителям, обладающих лучшими ростовыми и вкусовыми качествами. 18) Разрабатываются генетически модифицированные бактерии, способные производить экологически чистое топливо. 19)В 2003 году на рынке появилась GloFish — первый генетически модифицированный организм, созданный с эстетическими целями, и первое домашнее животное такого рода. 20) В 2009 году вышел в продажу ГМ-сорт розы «Applause» с цветами синего цвета. Таким образом, сбылась многовековая мечта селекционеров, безуспешно пытавшихся вывести «синие розы».